वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

PREFACE. iii the slowly accumulating mass of Vedic and Avestic evidence, is fully narrated in the book, and need not, therefore, be re- peated in this place. I desire, however, to take this opportu- nity of gratefully acknowledging the generous sympathy shewn to me at a critical time by that venerable scholar Prof. F. Max Muller, whose recent death was mourned as a personal loss by his numerous admirers throughout India. This is not the place where we may, with propriety, discuss the merits of the policy adopted by the Bombay Government in 1897. Suffice it to say that in order to put down certain public excitement, caused by its own famine and plague policy, the Government of the day deemed it prudent to prosecute some Vernacular papers in the province, and prominently amongst them the Kesari, edited by me, for writings which were held to be seditious, and I was awarded eighteen months' rigorous imprisonment. But political offenders in India are not treated better than ordinary convicts, and had it not been for the sympathy and interest taken by Prof. Max Muller, who knew me only as the author of Orion, and other friends, I should have been deprived of the pleasure, —then the only pleasure,—of following up my studies in these days. Prof. Max Muller was kind enough to send me a copy of his second edition of the Ṛig-Veda, and the Government was pleased to allow me the use of these and other books, and also of light to read for a few hours at night. Some of the passages from the Ṛig-Veda, quoted in support of the Arctic theory in the following pages, were collected during such leisure as I could get in these times. It was mainly through the efforts of Prof. Max Muller, backed by the whole Indian press, that I was released after twelve months; and in the very first letter I wrote to Prof. Max Muller after my release, I thanked him sincerely for his disinterested kindness, and also gave him a brief summary of my new theory regarding the primitive Aryan home as disclosed by Vedic evidence. It

iv PREFACE. was, of course, not to be expected that a scholar, who had worked all his life on a different line, would accept the new view at once, and that too on reading a bare outline of the evi- dence in its support. Still it was encouraging to hear from him that though the interpretations of Vedic passages proposed by me were probable, yet my theory appeared to be in conflict with the established geological facts. I wrote in reply that I had already examined the question from that stand-point, and ex- pected soon to place before him the whole evidence in support of my view. But, unfortunately, I have been deprived of this pleasure by his deeply mourned death which occurred soon after. The first manuscript of the book was written at the end of 1898, and since then I have had the advantage of discussing the question with many scholars in Madras, Calcutta, Lahore, Benares and other places during my travels in the different parts of India. But I hesitated to publish the book for a long time,— a part of the delay is due to other causes,—because the lines of investigation had ramified into many allied sciences such as geology, archæology, comparative mythology and so on; and, as I was a mere layman in these, I felt some diffidence as to whether I had correctly grasped the bearing of the latest researches in these sciences. The difficulty is well described by Prof. Max Muller in his review of the Pre- historic Antiquities of Indo-Europeans, published in the volume of his Last Essays. “The ever-increasing division and sub-division,” “observes the learned Professor, “of almost every branch of human knowledge into more special branches of study make the specialist, whether he likes it or not, more and more dependent on the judg- ment and the help of his fellow-workers. A geologist in our day has often to deal with questions that concern the mineralogist, the chemist, the archæologist, the philologist, nay, the the astro- nomer, rather than the geologist pur et simple, and, as

PREFACE. v life is too short for all this, nothing is left to him but to appeal to his colleagues for counsel and help. It is one of the great advantages of University life that any one, who is in trouble about some question outside his own domain, can at once get the very best information from his colleagues, and many of the happiest views and brightest solutions of complicated problems are due, as is well-known, to this free intercourse, this scientific give and take in our academic centres." And again, "Unless a student can appeal for help to recognised authorities on all these subjects, he is apt to make brilliant discoveries, which ex- plode at the slightest touch of the specialist, and, on the other hand, to pass by facts which have only to be pointed out in order to disclose their significance and far-reaching importance. People are hardly aware of the benefit which every branch of science derives from the free and generous exchange of ideas, particularly in our Universities, where every body may avail himself of the advice and help of his colleagues, whether they warn him against yet impossible theories, or call his attention to a book or an article, where the very point, that interests him, has been fully worked out and settled once for all." But alas! it is not given to us to move in an atmosphere like this, and small wonder if Indian students are not found to go beyond the stage of passing the examinations. There is not a single insti- tution in India, nor, despite the University Commission, can we hope to have any before long, where one can get all up-to-date in- formation on any desired subject, so easily obtainable at a seat of learning in the West; and in its absence the only course open to a person, investigating a particular subject, is, in the words of the same learned scholar, "to step boldly out of his own domain, and take an independent survey of the preserves of his neigh- bours," even at the risk of being called "an interloper, an igno- ramus, a mere dilettante," for, "whatever accidents he may meet

vi PREFACE. with himself, the subject itself is sure to be benefited." Working under such disadvantages, I was, therefore, glad, when, on turn- ing the pages of the first volume of the tenth edition of the En- cyclopædia Britannica, recently received, I found that Prof. Geikie, in his article on geology, took the same view of Dr. Croll's calculations, as summarised at the end of the second chapter of this book. After stating that Croll's doctrine did not make way amongst physicists and astronomers, the eminent geologist says that more recently (1895) it has been critically examined by Mr. E. P. Culverwell, who regards it as "a vague speculation, clothed indeed with delusive semblance of severe numerical accuracy, but having no foundation in physical fact, and built up of parts which do not dovetail one into the other." If Dr. Croll's calculations are disposed of in this way, there re- mains nothing to prevent us from accepting the view of the American geologists that the commencement of the Post-glacial period cannot be placed at a date earlier than 8000 B. C. It has been already stated that the beginnings of Aryan civilization must be supposed to date back several thousand years before the oldest Vedic period; and when the commence- ment of the Post-glacial epoch is brought down to 8000 B. C., it is not at all surprising if the date of primitive Aryan life is found to go back to it from 4500 B. C., the age of the oldest Vedic period. In fact, it is the main point sought to be established in the present volume. There are many passages in the Ṛig-Veda, which, though hitherto looked upon as obscure and unintelligible, do, when interpreted in the light of recent scientific researches, plainly disclose the Polar attri- butes of the Vedic deities, or the traces of an ancient Arctic calendar ; while the Avesta expressly tells us that the happy land of Airyana Vaêjo, or the Aryan Paradise, was located in a region where the sun shone but once a year, and that it was destroyed by the invasion of snow and ice, which rendered its

PREFACE. vii climate inclement and necessitated a migration southward. These are plain and simple statements, and when we put them side by side with what we know of the Glacial and the Post-glacial epoch from the latest geological researches, we cannot avoid the conclusion that the primitive Aryan home was both Arctic and inter-glacial. I have often asked myself, why the real bearing of these plain and simple statements should have so long remain- ed undiscovered; and let me assure the reader that it was not un- til I was convinced that the discovery was due solely to the re- cent progress in our knowledge regarding the primitive history of the human race and the planet it inhabits, that I ventured to publish the present volume. Some Zend scholars have narrow- ly missed the truth, simply because 40 or 50 years ago they were unable to understand how a happy home could be located in the ice-bound regions near the North Pole. The progress of geological science in the latter half of the last century has, how- ever, now solved the difficulty by proving that the climate at the Pole during the interglacial times was mild, and consequent- ly not unsuited for human habitation. There is, therefore, nothing extraordinary, if it be left to us to find out the real import of these passages in the Veda and Avesta. It is true that if the theory of an Arctic and inter-glacial primitive Aryan home is proved, many a chapter in Vedic exegetics, comparative mythology, or primitive Aryan history, will have to be re- vised or re-written, and in the last chapter of this book I have myself discussed a few important points which will be affect- ed by the new theory. But as remarked by me at the end of the book, considerations like these, howsoever useful they may be in inducing caution in our investigations, ought not to deter us from accepting the results of an inquiry conducted on strictly scientific lines. It is very hard, I know, to give up theories upon which one has worked all his life. But, as Mr. Andrew Lang has put it, it should always be borne in mind

viii PREFACE. that "Our little systems have their day, or their hour : as know- ledge advances they pass into the history of the efforts of pio- neers." Nor is the theory of the Arctic home so new and start- ling as it appears to be at the first sight. Several scientific men have already declared their belief that the original home of man must be sought for in the Arctic regions; and Dr. Warren, the President of the Boston University, has anticipated me, to a cer- tain extent, in his learned and suggestive work, the Paradise Found or the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole, the tenth edition of which was published in America in 1893. Even on strict philological grounds the theory of a primitive Aryan home in Central Asia has been now almost abandoned in favour of North Germany or Scandinavia; while Prof. Rhys, in his Hibbert Lectures on Celtic Heathendom, is led to suggest "some spot within the Arctic circle" on purely mythological considera- tions. I go only a step further, and show that the theory, so far as the primitive Aryan home is concerned, is fully borne out by Vedic and Avestic traditions, and, what is still more import- ant, the latest geological researches not only corroborate the Avestic description of the destruction of the Aryan Paradise, but enable us to place its existence in times before the last Glacial epoch. The evidence on which I rely is fully set forth in the following pages ; and, though the question is thus brought for the first time within the arena of Vedic and Avestic scholar- ship, I trust that my critics will not prejudge me in any way, but give their judgment, not on a passage here or an argument there,—for, taken singly, it may not sometimes be found to be conclusive,—but on the whole mass of evidence collected in the book, irrespective of how far-reaching the ultimate effects of such a theory may be. In conclusion, I desire to express my obligations to my friend and old teacher Prof. S. G. Jinsivâle, M. A., who carefully went through the whole manuscript, except the last

PREFACE. IX chapter which was subsequently written, verified all references, pointed out a few inaccuracies, and made some valuable sug- gestions. I have also to acknowledge with thanks the ready assistance rendered to me by Dr. Râmkṛishṇa Gopâl Bhâṇḍâr- kar, C. I. E., and Khân Bahâdur Dr. Dastur Hoshang Jamâspji the High Priest of the Parsis in the Deccan, whenever I had an oc- casion to consult them. Indeed, it would have been impossible to criticise the Avestic passage so fully without the willing co-opera- tion of the learned High Priest and his obliging Deputy Dastur Kaikobâd. I am also indebted to Prof. M. Raṅgâchârya M. A., of Madras, with whom I had an opportunity of discussing the sub- ject, for some critical suggestions, to Mr. Shrinivâs Iyengar, B. A., B. L., of the Madras High Court Bar, for a translation of Lignana's Essay, to Mr. G. R. Gogte, B. A., LL. B., for pre- paring the manuscript for the press, and to my friend Mr. K. G. Oka, who helped me in reading the proof-sheets, and but for whose care many errors would have escaped my attention. My thanks are similarly due to the Managers of the Ânandâ- shrama and the Fergusson College for free access to their libra- ries and to the Manager of the Ârya-Bhûshaṇa Press for the care bestowed on the printing of this volume. It is needless to add that I am alone responsible for the views embodied in the book. When I published my Orion I little thought that I could bring to this stage my investigation into the antiquity of the Vedas; but it has pleased Providence to grant me strength amidst troubles and difficulties to do the work, and, with humble remembrance of the same, I conclude in the words of the well- known consecratory formula,— ॐ तत् सत् ब्रह्मार्पणमस्तु । POONA: March, 1903. B. G. TILAK.

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CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE . . . . . . . . i—ix CHAPTER I. ‘PREHISTORIC TIMES. The Historic Period—Preceded by myths and traditions—The Science of Mythology—Fresh impulse given to it by Comparative Philo- logy—Unity of Aryan races and languages—The system of in- terpreting myths, and the theory of Asiatic Home—Recent dis- coveries in Geology and Archæology—Requiring revision of old theories—The Vedas still partially unintelligible—New key to their interpretation supplied by recent discoveries—The Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Represent different stages of civilization in Prehistoric times—The Ages not necessarily synchronous in different countries—Distinction between Neolithic and Palæolithic or New and Old Stone Age—The Geological eras and periods —Their correlation with the three Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone —Palæolithic Age probably inter-glacial—Man in Quartenary and Tertiary eras—Date of the Neolithic Age—5000 B. C. from lake- dwellings—Peat-mosses of Denmark —Ages of Beach, Oak and Fir—Date of the Palæolithic or the commencement of the Post- Glacial period—Different estimates of European and American geologists—Freshness of fossil deposits in Siberia—Favours Ame- rican estimate of 8000 years—Neolithic races—Dolicho-cephalic, and Brachy-cephalic—Modern European races descended from them—Controversy as to which of these represent the Primitive Aryans in Europe—Different views of German and French writers —Social condition of the Neolithic races and the primitive Aryans —Dr. Schrader's view—Neolithic Aryan race in Europe cannot be regarded as autochthonous—Nor descended from the Palæolithic man—The question of the original Aryan home still unsettled. 1

xii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER II. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. Geological climate—Uniform and gentle in early ages—Due to dif- ferent distribution of land and water—Climatic changes in the Quarternary era—The Glacial epoch— Its existence undoubtedly proved—Extent of glaciation—At least two Glacial periods — Accompanied by elevation and depression of land — Mild and genial inter-glacial climate even in the Arctic regions—Various theories regarding the cause of the Ice Age stated—Lyell's theory of geographical changes —Showing long duration of the Glacial period—Croll's theory—Effect of the precession of the equinoxes on the duration and intensity of seasons —The cycle of 21,000 years—The effect enhanced by the eccentricity of the earth's orbit —Maximum difference of 33 days between the duration of sum- mer and winter—Sir Robert Ball's calculations regarding the average heat received by each hemisphere in summer and winter —Short and warm summers and long and cold winters, giving rise to a Glacial epoch—Dr. Croll's extraordinary estimate re- garding the duration of the glacial epoch—Based on the maxi- mum value of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit—Questioned by astronomers and geologists —Sir Robert Ball's and Newcomb's view —Croll's estimates inconsistent with geological evidence— Opinions of Prof. Geikie and Mr. Hudleston—Long duration of the Glacial period—Summary of results. . . . . 20 CHAPTER III. THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Existence of a Circum-polar continent in early times—Probable also in the Inter-glacial period—Milder climate at the time—Neces- sity of examining Vedic Myths—Difference between Polar and circumpolar characteristics—The precession of the equinoxes used as chronometer in Vedic chronology—Characteristics of the North Pole—The horizontal motion of the celestial hemisphere—Spin- ning round of the stars without rising or setting—The Sun rising in the South—A day and a night of six months each—Aurora Borealis —Continuous fortnightly moonlight, and long morning

CONTENTS xiii PAGE and evening twilights—Dawn lasting from 45 to 60 days—The Polar year—The darkness of the Polar night reduced only to two, or two and a half, months—Dr. Warren's description of the Polar dawn with its revolving splendours—Characteristics of regions to the South of the North Pole—Stars moving obliquely and a few rising and setting as in the tropical zone—The southerly direction of the Sun—A long day and a long night, but of less than six months' duration—Supplemented by the alterations of ordinary days and nights for some time during the year—Long dawn, but of shorter duration than at the Pole—Comparison with the features of the year in the tropics—Summary of Polar and Circum-polar characteristics. . . . . . 39 CHAPTER IV. The Night of the Gods. Vedic sacrifices, regulated by the luni-solar calendar—A year of six seasons and twelve months, with an intercalary month in the Tait- tirîya Saṁhitâ—The same in the Ṛig-Veda—Present result of the Vedic mythology—All presuppose a home in the temperate or the tropical zone—But further research still necessary—The spe- cial character of the Ṛig-Veda explained—Polar tests found in the Ṛig-Veda—Indra supporting the heavens with a pole, and moving them like a wheel—A day and a night of six months, in the form of the half-yearly day and night of the Gods—Found in the Sûrya Siddhânta and older astronomical Saṁhitâs—Bhâskarâ- chârya's error explained—Gods' day and night mentioned by Manu and referred to by Yâska—The description of Meru or the North Pole in the Mahâbhârata—In the Taittirîya Âraṇyaka —The passage in the Taittirîya Brâhmaṇa about the year-long day of the Gods—Improbability of explaining it except as founded on the observation of nature—Parallel passage in the Vendîdâd— Its Polar character clearly established by the context—The Vara of Yima in the Airyana Vaejô—The sun rising and setting there only once a year—The Devayâna and the Pitṛiyâna in the Ṛig- Veda—Probably represent the oldest division of the year, like the day and the night of the Gods—The path of Mazda in the Parsi scriptures—Death during Pitṛiyâna regarded inauspicious —Bâdarâyaṇa's view—Probable explanation suggested—Death during winter or Pitṛiyâna in the Parsi scriptures—Probably in-

xiv CONTENTS. PAGE dicates a period of total darkness—Similar Greek traditions —Norse Twilight of the Gods —The idea of half-yearly day and night of the Gods thus proved to be not only Indo-Iranian, but Indo-Germanic —A sure indication of an original Polar home. - 61 CHAPTER V. THE VEDIC DAWNS. Dawn-hymns the most beautiful in the Ṛig-Veda—The Deity fully described, unobscured by personification—First hints about the long duration of dawn —Recitation of a thousand verses, or even the whole Ṛig-Veda, while the dawn lasts—Three or five-fold divison of the dawn—Both imply a long dawn—The same in- ferred from the two words Ushas and Vyushṭi—Three Ṛig-Vedic passages about long dawns, hitherto misunderstood, discussed— Long interval of several days between the first appearance of light and sunrise—Expressly mentioned in the Ṛig-Veda, VII, 76, 3—Sâyaṇa's explanation artificial and unsatisfactory —Existence of many dawns before sunrise—Reason why dawn is addressed in the plural in the Ṛig-Veda—The plural address not honorific— Nor denotes dawns of consecutive days—Proves a team of conti- nuous dawns—The last view confirmed by the Taittirîya Saṁ- hitâ, IV, 3, 11--Dawns as 30 sisters—Direct authority from the Taittirîya Brâhmaṇa for holding that they were continuous or un- separated—Sâyaṇa's explanation of 30 dawns examined—Thirty dawns described as thirty steps of a single dawn—Rotatory motion of the dawn, like a wheel, directly mentioned in the Ṛig-Veda—Their reaching the same appointed place day by day —All indicate a team of thirty closely-gathered dawns—Results summed up—Establish the Polar character of the Vedic dawns —Possible variation in the duration of the Vedic dawn—The legend of Indra shattering the Dawn's car explained—Direct passages showing that the dawns so described were the events of a former age—The Vedic Dawns Polar in character. . 80 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V. The Thirty Dawns. . . . . . 113

CONTENTS. xv PAGE CHAPTER VI. LONG DAY AND LONG NIGHT. Independent evidence about the long night—Vṛitra living in long darkness—Expressions denoting long darkness or long night— Anxiety to reach the end of darkness—Prayers to reach safely the other end of night—A night, the other boundary of which was not known according to the Atharva Veda—The Taittirīya Saṁhitâ explains that these prayers were due to fears entertained by the ancient priests that the night would not dawn—Not caused by long winter nights as supposed by Sâyaṇa—Description of days and nights in the Ṛig-Veda—Divided into two typical pairs —One described as bright, dark and virûpe—Virûpe means 'of varying lengths' and not 'of various colours'—Second pair, Ahanî, different from the first—Durations of days and nights on the globe examined—Ahanî can only be a couple of the long Arc- tic day and night—Described as forming the right and left, or the opposite sides of the Year in the Taittirīya Âraṇyaka—The sun is described in the Ṛig-Veda as unyoking his car in the midst of the sky—And thereby retaliating Dâsa's mischief—Represents the long day and the long night—Summary of evidence regarding long day and long night—Uṣhas and Sûrya as Dakṣhiṇâ and Dakshiṇa's son—Probably imply the southerly course of both. . 123 CHAPTER VII. MONTHS AND SEASONS. Evidence of rejected calendar generally preserved in sacrificial rites by conservative priests—Varying number of the months of sunshine in the Arctic region—Its effect on sacrificial sessions considered —Seven-fold character of the sun in the Vedas—The legend of Aditi—She presents her seven sons to the gods and casts away the eighth—Various explanations of the legend in the Brâhmaṇas and the Taittirīya Âraṇyaka—Twelve suns understood to be the twelve month-gods in later literature—By analogy seven suns must have once indicated seven months of sunshine—Different suns were believed to be necessary to produce different seasons— Aditi's legend belongs to the former age, or pûrvyam yugam

xvi CONTENTS. PAGE. —Evidence from sacrificial literature —The families of sacrificers in primeval times —Called ' our ancient fathers ' in the Ṛig-Veda —Atharvan and Aṅgiras traced to Indo-European period —Nava- gvas and Dashagvas, the principal species of the Aṅgirases—Help- ed. Indra in his fight with Vala —They finished their sacrificial session in ten months —The sun dwelling in darkness —Ten months' sacrifices indicate only ten months of sunshine, followed by the long night —Etymology of Navagva and Dashagva —Ac- cording to Sâyaṇa the words denote persons sacrificing for nine or ten months —Prof. Lignana's explanation improbable —The ad- jective Virûpas applied to the Aṅgirases—Indicates other varieties of these sacrificers —Saptagu, or seven Hotṛis or Vipras—Legend of Dîrghatamas —As narrated in the Mahâbhârata—A protege of Ashvins in the Ṛig-Veda—Growing old in the tenth yuga —Mean- ing of.yuga discussed—Mânushâ yugâ means ' human ages,' and not always ' human tribes ' in the Ṛig-Veda —Two passages in proof thereof—Interpretations of Western scholars examined and rejected--Mânushâ yugâ denoted months after the long dawn and before the long night—Dîrghatamas represents the sun setting in the tenth month —Mânushâ yugâ and continuous nights—The five seasons in ancient times— A Ṛig-Veda passage bearing on it discussed —The year of five seasons described as residing in waters —Indicates darkness of the long night —Not made up by combining any two consecutive seasons out of six —The explana- tion in the Brâhmaṇas improbable—Summary. . . 148 CHAPTER VIII. THE COWS' WALK. The Pravargya ceremony—Symbolises the revival of the yearly sacri- fice —Milk representing seed heated in Gharma or Mahâvîra — Mantras used on the occasion of pouring milk into it —The two creating the five, and the ten of Vivasvat—Indicate the death of the year after five seasons or ten months—The tradition about the sun falling beyond the sky —Annual Sattras —Their type, the Gavâm-ayanam or the Cows' Walk—Lasted for 10 or 12 months according to the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa —Two passages from the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ describing the Gavâm-ayanam —Mention 10 months' duration of the Sattra, but give no reason except that it

CONTENTS. xvii PAGE was an ancient practice—Plainly indicates an ancient sacrificial year of ten months—Comparison with the old Roman year of ten months or 304 days—How the rest of 360 days were disposed of by the Romans not yet known—They represented a long period of darkness according to the legend of the Dashagvas—Thus lead- ing to the Arctic theory —Prof. Max Muller on the threefold nature of cows in the Vedas —Cows as animals, rain and dawns or days in the Ṛig-Veda—Ten months' Cows' walk thus means the ten months' duration of ordinary days and nights —350 oxen of Hêlios—Implies a night of ten days—The stealing of Apollon's oxen by Hermes—Cows stolen by Vṛitra in the Vedas—Represent the stealing of day-cows thereby causing the long night—Further sacrificial evidence from the Vedas—Classification of the Soma- sacrifices—Difference between Ekâha and Ahîna—A hundred nightly sacrifices—Annual Sattras like the Gavâm-ayanam—Mo- del out-line or scheme of ceremonies therein—Other modifica- tions of the same—All at present based upon a civil year—But lasted for ten months in ancient times—Night-sacrifices now in- cluded amongst day-sacrifices—The reason why the former ex- tend only over 100 nights is yet unexplained—Appropriately ac- counted for on the Arctic theory—Soma juice extracted at night in the Ati-râtra, or the trans-nocturnal sacrifice even now—The analogy applied to other night-sacrifices—Râtri Sattras were the sacrifices of the long night in ancient times—Their object—Soma libations exclusively offered to Indra to help him in his fight against Vala—Shata-râtra represented the maximum duration of the long night—Corroborated by Aditi's legend of seven months' sunshine—Explains why Indra was called Shata-kratu in the Pu- râṇas—The epithet misunderstood by Western scholars—Similar- ity between Soma and Ashvamedha sacrifices— The epithet Shata-kratu, unlike other epithets, never paraphrased in the Ve- das—Implies that it was peculiar or proper to Indra—Dr. Haug's view that kratu, means sacrifice in the Vedas—Hundred forts or puraḥ (cities) of Vṛitra—Explained as hundred seats of darkness or nights—Legend of Tishtrya's fight with Apaosha in the Avesta —Only a reproduction of Indra's fight with Vṛitra—Tishtrya's fight described as lasting from one to a hundred nights in the Avesta—Forms an independent corroboration of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices — The phrase sato-karahe found in the Avesta —The meaning and nature of Ati-râtra discussed—Means a trans- nocturnal Soma sacrifice at either end of the long night—Produc- tion of the cycle of day and night therefrom—Hence a fitting in-

xviii . CONTENTS. . PAG troduction to the annual Sattras—Marked the close of the long night and the beginning of the period of sunshine—Sattra, Ati- rātra, night-sacrifices and Ati-rātra again thus formed the yearly round of sacrifices in ancient times—Clearly indicate the existence of a long darkness of 100 nights in the ancient year—Ancient sacrificial system thus corresponded with the ancient year—Adap- tation of both to the new home effected by the Brâhmaṇas, like Numa's reform in the old Roman Calendar—The importance of the results of sacrificial evidence. . . . . 188 CHAPTER IX. VEDIC MYTHS—THE CAPTIVE WATERS. Direct evidence for the Arctic theory summed up—Different nature of the Mythological evidence—Schools of Mythological interpreta- tion—The naturalistic or the Nairukta school—Its theories—The Dawn theory and the myths explained by it—The Storm theory, Indra and Vṛitra—The Vernal theory, the Ashvins' exploits—Vṛi- tra's legend usually explained by the Storm theory—Simultaneous effects of Indra's conquest over Vṛitra—The release of waters, the release of cows, the recovery of the dawn and the production of the sun—Vedic authorities in support of their simultaneous char- acter—Passages relating to the place and time of the conflict —The simultaneous nature left unexplained by the Dawn or the Storm theory—Battle not fought in the atmosphere above, as im- plied by the Storm theory—Nor in the rainy season—Misinter- pretation of words like parvata, giri, adri, &c.—The Storm theory inadequate in every respect—New explanation necessary—The real nature of waters explained—They are aerial or celestial waters, and not the waters of rain—Vedic bards knew of a region 'below the three earths'—The contrary view of Wallis refuted —The real meaning of rajas, Nir-riti, ardhau and samudram ex- plained—Cosmic circulation of aerial waters—Nether world, the home of aerial waters—Avestic passages describing the circula- tion of waters cited and explained—Sarasvatî and Ardvi Sûra Anâhita are celestial rivers—The source of all plants and rain —The real nature of Vṛitra's fight—Simultaneous release of waters and light is intelligible, if both have the same source—Both stopped by Vṛitra's encompassing the waters in the lower world— The closing of the apertures in the mountains (parvatas) on the horizon—The movement of the waters and the sun co-related

CONTENTS, . xix PAGE —Express passages from the Avesta to that effect—The sun stop- ping for a long time in waters —Avestic passages in support there- of—Its effect on the disposal of corpses —Darkness synchronous with the cessation of the flow of waters in winter—Its long dura- tion—Cosmic circulation of waters in other mythologies—Express texts showing that the fight with Vṛitra was annual and fought in winter—Inexplicable except on the Arctic theory —The exact date of Indra's fight with Vṛitra preserved in the Ṛig-Veda—The real meaning of chatvâriṁshyâm sharadi explained—Shambara found on the 40th day of sharad —Denotes the commencement of the long night —Vedic passages shewing sharad to be the last season of sunshine—Paleographical evidence for reckoning time by seasons —Similar reckoning in the Avesta — 100 autumnal forts of Vṛitra and the killing of the watery demon with ice ex- plained —The seven rivers released by Indra—Cannot be terres- trial, nor the rivers of the Panjaub —The interpretation of West- ern scholars examined and rejected—The connection between the seven rivers and the seven suns pointed out —The origin of the phrase Hapta-hindu in the Avesta—Probably a transference of an old mythological name to a place in the new home —Vṛitra's legend Arctic in origin —Captive waters represent the yearly struggle between light and the darkness in the ancient Arctic home. 233 CHAPTER X. VEDIC MYTHS—THE MATUTINAL DEITIES. Vernal theory and the legends of the Ashvins—The part played by the Ashvins in the struggle for waters and light —Intelligible only on the Arctic theory—Their exploits and legends—Saving or rejuve- nating, rescuing from the ocean, or restoring the eye-sight or light, to Chyavâna, Rebha, Bhujyu, Atri, Vandana &c.—All ex- plained at present as referring to the rescue of the daily dawn or the vernal restoration of the powers of the winter sun—But the theory fails to explain references to blindness or darkness in se- veral legends—Nor does it account for the duration of the distress of the Ashvins' protégés —Nor for the character of the place of distress from which the proteges were saved—Bottomless and dark ocean really means the nether world—A bowl with bottom up and mouth downwards indicates the inverted hemisphere of the

XX CONTENTS. PAGE Hades—Legend of Ṛijrâshva—The slaughter of a hundred sheep represents the conversion of a hundred days into so many nights —The story of Saptavadhri or the seven-eunuch, praying for safe delivery after ten months of gestation—Remains unexplained up to the present—The interior of heaven and earth is conceived in the Veda as the womb in which the sun moves when above the horizon—Ten months' gestation thus represents the ten months when the Sun is above the horizon—Prayer for safe delivery in- dicates the perils of the long night—Riddle or paradox of a child becoming invisible as soon as born—The story of the hidden Agni refers to the same phenomenon—Probable origin of the Paurâṇic story of Kumâra or Kârttikeya —Superiority of the Arctic over the Vernal theory in explaining the legends of the Ashvins— The legend of Indra's stealing Sûrya's wheel —The meaning of dasha-prapitve discussed—Indicates darkness on the completion of ten months—Viṣhṇu's three strides—Different opinions about their nature quoted—Viṣhṇu's strides represent the yearly course of the sun —and his third invisible step represents the nether world— Viṣhṇu's opprobrious name, Shipiviṣhṭha—Represents the dark or the diseased sun during the long Arctic night—The three abodes of Savitṛi, Agni and the Ashvins compared to Vish- ṇu's third step—The legend of Trita Âptya—Trita, or the third, represents the third part of the year—The Indo-Germanic origin of the legend—The Âpas—Their character and nature de- scribed—Seven-fold and ten-fold division of things in the Vedic literature—Various instances of seven-fold and ten-fold division collected—This two-fold division probably due to the seven and ten months' period of sunshine in the Arctic region—The Dâsha- râjña fight—Represents struggle with the ten-fold division of darkness—Bṛihaspati and his lost wife in the Ṛig-Veda—The ten non-sacrificing kings and Râvaṇa compared—Mythical element in the Râmâyaṇa probably derived from the Vedic mythology—Ha- numân and Vṛiṣhâkapi—Was Râmayaṇa copied from Homer— Both may have a common source—Conclusion. . . . 297 CHAPTER XI THE AVESTIC EVIDENCE. Nature of Avestic evidence stated—Different views of scholars re- garding its character—Necessity of re-examining the subject—

CONTENTS. xxi PAGE An abstract of the first Fargard of the Vendidad—Sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda with their modern equivalents &c.— Airyana Vaejo, the first created land represents the Paradise of the Iranians—Different views regarding its position—Darmesteter, Spiegel and others locate it in the east; Haug and Bunsen in the far north—Darmesteter’s argument examined—Airyana Vaejo can- not be determined from the position of Vanguhi—Identification of Rangha with the Caspian Sea or the westernmost river doubt- ful—Rangha is probably the same as Rasâ in the Ṛig-Veda, X, 75, 6—Unsoundness of Darmesteter’s reasoning—The position of the Airyana Vaejo must be determined from its special characteristics found in the Avesta—The passage where ten months’ winter is said to be such a characteristic cited—Ten months’ winter first in- troduced into the happy land by Angra Mainyu—Indicates that be- fore the fiend’s invasion there must have been ten months’ summer and two months winter in the land—Sudden change in the Polar climate fully confirmed by latest geological researches—Two months winter necessarily synchronous with long Arctic night —The tradition about seven months summer and five months win- ter also refers to the original climate in the Airyana Vaejo—Men- tioned in the Bundahish—Not inconsistent with the tradition of ten months summer recorded in the original passage—Both pos- sible in the Arctic regions—Similar statements in the Ṛig-Veda —Coincidence between seven months summer, the legend of Adi- ti, and the date of Indra’s fight with Shambara, pointed out —Summary of the second Fargard—Yima’s Vara in the Airyana Vaejo—Annual sunrise and a year long-day therein—Shows that the Airyana Vaejo must be located near the North Pole and not to the east of Iran—The account too graphic to be imaginary or my- thical—Represents the advent of the Glacial epoch in the land—It is the oldest human testimony to the advent of the Ice-age, de- stroying the Arctic home—Special importance of the Avestic evi- dence pointed out—Fully corroborated by scientific evidence—Mi- gration from Airyana Vaejo rendered necessary by glaciation —Sixteen lands in the first Fargard therefore represent successive stages of migration to Central Asia—Establishes the historical character of the first Fargard—The legend of deluge in the Shata- patha Brâhmaṇa—Probably refers to the same event as the Aves- tic legends—Other Vedic passages indicating the northern origin of Indian Aryas—Conclusion to be drawn from the Vedic and Avestic evidence combined. . . . . . 335

xxii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XII. COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY. The value of Comparative Mythology as corroborative evidence—Its use in the present case—The ancient calendars of the European Aryan races—The plurality of Dawns in the Lettish, the Greek and the Celtic mythology—The ancient Roman year of ten months and Numa's reform thereof—Plutarch's view—Improba- bility of Lignana's theory pointed out—The ancient Celtic year —Closed with the last day of October and marked the commence- ment of winter and darkness—The winter feast celebrated on the day—The mid-summer feast of Lugnassad on the first of August—The commencement of summer on the first of May —The date of the battle of Moytura—Similar duration of the old Norse year—Comparison with the ancient Greek calendar—All indicate six months' light and six months' darkness—Corrobora- tion derived from comparative philology—Two divisions of the year in primeval times—The Maid of Nine Forms in the Celtic mythology—The Nine paces of Thor in the Norse legend—Com- pared with the Vedic Navagvas and Vifra Navaza in the Avesta —Balder's home in the heavens—Indicates the long Arctic day —The Slavonic story of Ivan and his two brothers—Continuous night in Ivan's home—Comparison with the Vedic legend of Trita —The Slavonic winter demon—The story of Dawn and Gloaming in the Finnish mythology—Indicates a long day of four weeks —Celtic and Teutonic legends representing the Sun-god's annual struggle with darkness—Baldur and Hodur, Cuchulainn and Fo- mori—Temporary sickness and indisposition of gods and heroes —Prof. Rhys' views thereon—The affliction indicates winter darkness—Celtic and Teutonic myths indicating long continuous day and night—All point to a primeval home in the Arctic region —Recent ethnological researches in favour of European home re- ferred to—Indicate northern Germany or Scandinavia—The ne- cessity of going still farther North—Prof. Rhys suggests Finland or White Sea—Not inconsistent with the theory which seeks to make the North Pole the home of the whole human race—Prof. Rhys' method and conclusion—Primeval Arctic home established alike by the traditions of the eastern and western Aryas—Its rela- tion with the general theory about the cradle of the human race . at the North Pole explained. . : . . . . 391