वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

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CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE . . . . . . . . i—ix CHAPTER I. ‘PREHISTORIC TIMES. The Historic Period—Preceded by myths and traditions—The Science of Mythology—Fresh impulse given to it by Comparative Philo- logy—Unity of Aryan races and languages—The system of in- terpreting myths, and the theory of Asiatic Home—Recent dis- coveries in Geology and Archæology—Requiring revision of old theories—The Vedas still partially unintelligible—New key to their interpretation supplied by recent discoveries—The Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Represent different stages of civilization in Prehistoric times—The Ages not necessarily synchronous in different countries—Distinction between Neolithic and Palæolithic or New and Old Stone Age—The Geological eras and periods —Their correlation with the three Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone —Palæolithic Age probably inter-glacial—Man in Quartenary and Tertiary eras—Date of the Neolithic Age—5000 B. C. from lake- dwellings—Peat-mosses of Denmark —Ages of Beach, Oak and Fir—Date of the Palæolithic or the commencement of the Post- Glacial period—Different estimates of European and American geologists—Freshness of fossil deposits in Siberia—Favours Ame- rican estimate of 8000 years—Neolithic races—Dolicho-cephalic, and Brachy-cephalic—Modern European races descended from them—Controversy as to which of these represent the Primitive Aryans in Europe—Different views of German and French writers —Social condition of the Neolithic races and the primitive Aryans —Dr. Schrader's view—Neolithic Aryan race in Europe cannot be regarded as autochthonous—Nor descended from the Palæolithic man—The question of the original Aryan home still unsettled. 1

xii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER II. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. Geological climate—Uniform and gentle in early ages—Due to dif- ferent distribution of land and water—Climatic changes in the Quarternary era—The Glacial epoch— Its existence undoubtedly proved—Extent of glaciation—At least two Glacial periods — Accompanied by elevation and depression of land — Mild and genial inter-glacial climate even in the Arctic regions—Various theories regarding the cause of the Ice Age stated—Lyell's theory of geographical changes —Showing long duration of the Glacial period—Croll's theory—Effect of the precession of the equinoxes on the duration and intensity of seasons —The cycle of 21,000 years—The effect enhanced by the eccentricity of the earth's orbit —Maximum difference of 33 days between the duration of sum- mer and winter—Sir Robert Ball's calculations regarding the average heat received by each hemisphere in summer and winter —Short and warm summers and long and cold winters, giving rise to a Glacial epoch—Dr. Croll's extraordinary estimate re- garding the duration of the glacial epoch—Based on the maxi- mum value of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit—Questioned by astronomers and geologists —Sir Robert Ball's and Newcomb's view —Croll's estimates inconsistent with geological evidence— Opinions of Prof. Geikie and Mr. Hudleston—Long duration of the Glacial period—Summary of results. . . . . 20 CHAPTER III. THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Existence of a Circum-polar continent in early times—Probable also in the Inter-glacial period—Milder climate at the time—Neces- sity of examining Vedic Myths—Difference between Polar and circumpolar characteristics—The precession of the equinoxes used as chronometer in Vedic chronology—Characteristics of the North Pole—The horizontal motion of the celestial hemisphere—Spin- ning round of the stars without rising or setting—The Sun rising in the South—A day and a night of six months each—Aurora Borealis —Continuous fortnightly moonlight, and long morning

CONTENTS xiii PAGE and evening twilights—Dawn lasting from 45 to 60 days—The Polar year—The darkness of the Polar night reduced only to two, or two and a half, months—Dr. Warren's description of the Polar dawn with its revolving splendours—Characteristics of regions to the South of the North Pole—Stars moving obliquely and a few rising and setting as in the tropical zone—The southerly direction of the Sun—A long day and a long night, but of less than six months' duration—Supplemented by the alterations of ordinary days and nights for some time during the year—Long dawn, but of shorter duration than at the Pole—Comparison with the features of the year in the tropics—Summary of Polar and Circum-polar characteristics. . . . . . 39 CHAPTER IV. The Night of the Gods. Vedic sacrifices, regulated by the luni-solar calendar—A year of six seasons and twelve months, with an intercalary month in the Tait- tirîya Saṁhitâ—The same in the Ṛig-Veda—Present result of the Vedic mythology—All presuppose a home in the temperate or the tropical zone—But further research still necessary—The spe- cial character of the Ṛig-Veda explained—Polar tests found in the Ṛig-Veda—Indra supporting the heavens with a pole, and moving them like a wheel—A day and a night of six months, in the form of the half-yearly day and night of the Gods—Found in the Sûrya Siddhânta and older astronomical Saṁhitâs—Bhâskarâ- chârya's error explained—Gods' day and night mentioned by Manu and referred to by Yâska—The description of Meru or the North Pole in the Mahâbhârata—In the Taittirîya Âraṇyaka —The passage in the Taittirîya Brâhmaṇa about the year-long day of the Gods—Improbability of explaining it except as founded on the observation of nature—Parallel passage in the Vendîdâd— Its Polar character clearly established by the context—The Vara of Yima in the Airyana Vaejô—The sun rising and setting there only once a year—The Devayâna and the Pitṛiyâna in the Ṛig- Veda—Probably represent the oldest division of the year, like the day and the night of the Gods—The path of Mazda in the Parsi scriptures—Death during Pitṛiyâna regarded inauspicious —Bâdarâyaṇa's view—Probable explanation suggested—Death during winter or Pitṛiyâna in the Parsi scriptures—Probably in-

xiv CONTENTS. PAGE dicates a period of total darkness—Similar Greek traditions —Norse Twilight of the Gods —The idea of half-yearly day and night of the Gods thus proved to be not only Indo-Iranian, but Indo-Germanic —A sure indication of an original Polar home. - 61 CHAPTER V. THE VEDIC DAWNS. Dawn-hymns the most beautiful in the Ṛig-Veda—The Deity fully described, unobscured by personification—First hints about the long duration of dawn —Recitation of a thousand verses, or even the whole Ṛig-Veda, while the dawn lasts—Three or five-fold divison of the dawn—Both imply a long dawn—The same in- ferred from the two words Ushas and Vyushṭi—Three Ṛig-Vedic passages about long dawns, hitherto misunderstood, discussed— Long interval of several days between the first appearance of light and sunrise—Expressly mentioned in the Ṛig-Veda, VII, 76, 3—Sâyaṇa's explanation artificial and unsatisfactory —Existence of many dawns before sunrise—Reason why dawn is addressed in the plural in the Ṛig-Veda—The plural address not honorific— Nor denotes dawns of consecutive days—Proves a team of conti- nuous dawns—The last view confirmed by the Taittirîya Saṁ- hitâ, IV, 3, 11--Dawns as 30 sisters—Direct authority from the Taittirîya Brâhmaṇa for holding that they were continuous or un- separated—Sâyaṇa's explanation of 30 dawns examined—Thirty dawns described as thirty steps of a single dawn—Rotatory motion of the dawn, like a wheel, directly mentioned in the Ṛig-Veda—Their reaching the same appointed place day by day —All indicate a team of thirty closely-gathered dawns—Results summed up—Establish the Polar character of the Vedic dawns —Possible variation in the duration of the Vedic dawn—The legend of Indra shattering the Dawn's car explained—Direct passages showing that the dawns so described were the events of a former age—The Vedic Dawns Polar in character. . 80 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V. The Thirty Dawns. . . . . . 113

CONTENTS. xv PAGE CHAPTER VI. LONG DAY AND LONG NIGHT. Independent evidence about the long night—Vṛitra living in long darkness—Expressions denoting long darkness or long night— Anxiety to reach the end of darkness—Prayers to reach safely the other end of night—A night, the other boundary of which was not known according to the Atharva Veda—The Taittirīya Saṁhitâ explains that these prayers were due to fears entertained by the ancient priests that the night would not dawn—Not caused by long winter nights as supposed by Sâyaṇa—Description of days and nights in the Ṛig-Veda—Divided into two typical pairs —One described as bright, dark and virûpe—Virûpe means 'of varying lengths' and not 'of various colours'—Second pair, Ahanî, different from the first—Durations of days and nights on the globe examined—Ahanî can only be a couple of the long Arc- tic day and night—Described as forming the right and left, or the opposite sides of the Year in the Taittirīya Âraṇyaka—The sun is described in the Ṛig-Veda as unyoking his car in the midst of the sky—And thereby retaliating Dâsa's mischief—Represents the long day and the long night—Summary of evidence regarding long day and long night—Uṣhas and Sûrya as Dakṣhiṇâ and Dakshiṇa's son—Probably imply the southerly course of both. . 123 CHAPTER VII. MONTHS AND SEASONS. Evidence of rejected calendar generally preserved in sacrificial rites by conservative priests—Varying number of the months of sunshine in the Arctic region—Its effect on sacrificial sessions considered —Seven-fold character of the sun in the Vedas—The legend of Aditi—She presents her seven sons to the gods and casts away the eighth—Various explanations of the legend in the Brâhmaṇas and the Taittirīya Âraṇyaka—Twelve suns understood to be the twelve month-gods in later literature—By analogy seven suns must have once indicated seven months of sunshine—Different suns were believed to be necessary to produce different seasons— Aditi's legend belongs to the former age, or pûrvyam yugam

xvi CONTENTS. PAGE. —Evidence from sacrificial literature —The families of sacrificers in primeval times —Called ' our ancient fathers ' in the Ṛig-Veda —Atharvan and Aṅgiras traced to Indo-European period —Nava- gvas and Dashagvas, the principal species of the Aṅgirases—Help- ed. Indra in his fight with Vala —They finished their sacrificial session in ten months —The sun dwelling in darkness —Ten months' sacrifices indicate only ten months of sunshine, followed by the long night —Etymology of Navagva and Dashagva —Ac- cording to Sâyaṇa the words denote persons sacrificing for nine or ten months —Prof. Lignana's explanation improbable —The ad- jective Virûpas applied to the Aṅgirases—Indicates other varieties of these sacrificers —Saptagu, or seven Hotṛis or Vipras—Legend of Dîrghatamas —As narrated in the Mahâbhârata—A protege of Ashvins in the Ṛig-Veda—Growing old in the tenth yuga —Mean- ing of.yuga discussed—Mânushâ yugâ means ' human ages,' and not always ' human tribes ' in the Ṛig-Veda —Two passages in proof thereof—Interpretations of Western scholars examined and rejected--Mânushâ yugâ denoted months after the long dawn and before the long night—Dîrghatamas represents the sun setting in the tenth month —Mânushâ yugâ and continuous nights—The five seasons in ancient times— A Ṛig-Veda passage bearing on it discussed —The year of five seasons described as residing in waters —Indicates darkness of the long night —Not made up by combining any two consecutive seasons out of six —The explana- tion in the Brâhmaṇas improbable—Summary. . . 148 CHAPTER VIII. THE COWS' WALK. The Pravargya ceremony—Symbolises the revival of the yearly sacri- fice —Milk representing seed heated in Gharma or Mahâvîra — Mantras used on the occasion of pouring milk into it —The two creating the five, and the ten of Vivasvat—Indicate the death of the year after five seasons or ten months—The tradition about the sun falling beyond the sky —Annual Sattras —Their type, the Gavâm-ayanam or the Cows' Walk—Lasted for 10 or 12 months according to the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa —Two passages from the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ describing the Gavâm-ayanam —Mention 10 months' duration of the Sattra, but give no reason except that it

CONTENTS. xvii PAGE was an ancient practice—Plainly indicates an ancient sacrificial year of ten months—Comparison with the old Roman year of ten months or 304 days—How the rest of 360 days were disposed of by the Romans not yet known—They represented a long period of darkness according to the legend of the Dashagvas—Thus lead- ing to the Arctic theory —Prof. Max Muller on the threefold nature of cows in the Vedas —Cows as animals, rain and dawns or days in the Ṛig-Veda—Ten months' Cows' walk thus means the ten months' duration of ordinary days and nights —350 oxen of Hêlios—Implies a night of ten days—The stealing of Apollon's oxen by Hermes—Cows stolen by Vṛitra in the Vedas—Represent the stealing of day-cows thereby causing the long night—Further sacrificial evidence from the Vedas—Classification of the Soma- sacrifices—Difference between Ekâha and Ahîna—A hundred nightly sacrifices—Annual Sattras like the Gavâm-ayanam—Mo- del out-line or scheme of ceremonies therein—Other modifica- tions of the same—All at present based upon a civil year—But lasted for ten months in ancient times—Night-sacrifices now in- cluded amongst day-sacrifices—The reason why the former ex- tend only over 100 nights is yet unexplained—Appropriately ac- counted for on the Arctic theory—Soma juice extracted at night in the Ati-râtra, or the trans-nocturnal sacrifice even now—The analogy applied to other night-sacrifices—Râtri Sattras were the sacrifices of the long night in ancient times—Their object—Soma libations exclusively offered to Indra to help him in his fight against Vala—Shata-râtra represented the maximum duration of the long night—Corroborated by Aditi's legend of seven months' sunshine—Explains why Indra was called Shata-kratu in the Pu- râṇas—The epithet misunderstood by Western scholars—Similar- ity between Soma and Ashvamedha sacrifices— The epithet Shata-kratu, unlike other epithets, never paraphrased in the Ve- das—Implies that it was peculiar or proper to Indra—Dr. Haug's view that kratu, means sacrifice in the Vedas—Hundred forts or puraḥ (cities) of Vṛitra—Explained as hundred seats of darkness or nights—Legend of Tishtrya's fight with Apaosha in the Avesta —Only a reproduction of Indra's fight with Vṛitra—Tishtrya's fight described as lasting from one to a hundred nights in the Avesta—Forms an independent corroboration of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices — The phrase sato-karahe found in the Avesta —The meaning and nature of Ati-râtra discussed—Means a trans- nocturnal Soma sacrifice at either end of the long night—Produc- tion of the cycle of day and night therefrom—Hence a fitting in-

xviii . CONTENTS. . PAG troduction to the annual Sattras—Marked the close of the long night and the beginning of the period of sunshine—Sattra, Ati- rātra, night-sacrifices and Ati-rātra again thus formed the yearly round of sacrifices in ancient times—Clearly indicate the existence of a long darkness of 100 nights in the ancient year—Ancient sacrificial system thus corresponded with the ancient year—Adap- tation of both to the new home effected by the Brâhmaṇas, like Numa's reform in the old Roman Calendar—The importance of the results of sacrificial evidence. . . . . 188 CHAPTER IX. VEDIC MYTHS—THE CAPTIVE WATERS. Direct evidence for the Arctic theory summed up—Different nature of the Mythological evidence—Schools of Mythological interpreta- tion—The naturalistic or the Nairukta school—Its theories—The Dawn theory and the myths explained by it—The Storm theory, Indra and Vṛitra—The Vernal theory, the Ashvins' exploits—Vṛi- tra's legend usually explained by the Storm theory—Simultaneous effects of Indra's conquest over Vṛitra—The release of waters, the release of cows, the recovery of the dawn and the production of the sun—Vedic authorities in support of their simultaneous char- acter—Passages relating to the place and time of the conflict —The simultaneous nature left unexplained by the Dawn or the Storm theory—Battle not fought in the atmosphere above, as im- plied by the Storm theory—Nor in the rainy season—Misinter- pretation of words like parvata, giri, adri, &c.—The Storm theory inadequate in every respect—New explanation necessary—The real nature of waters explained—They are aerial or celestial waters, and not the waters of rain—Vedic bards knew of a region 'below the three earths'—The contrary view of Wallis refuted —The real meaning of rajas, Nir-riti, ardhau and samudram ex- plained—Cosmic circulation of aerial waters—Nether world, the home of aerial waters—Avestic passages describing the circula- tion of waters cited and explained—Sarasvatî and Ardvi Sûra Anâhita are celestial rivers—The source of all plants and rain —The real nature of Vṛitra's fight—Simultaneous release of waters and light is intelligible, if both have the same source—Both stopped by Vṛitra's encompassing the waters in the lower world— The closing of the apertures in the mountains (parvatas) on the horizon—The movement of the waters and the sun co-related

CONTENTS, . xix PAGE —Express passages from the Avesta to that effect—The sun stop- ping for a long time in waters —Avestic passages in support there- of—Its effect on the disposal of corpses —Darkness synchronous with the cessation of the flow of waters in winter—Its long dura- tion—Cosmic circulation of waters in other mythologies—Express texts showing that the fight with Vṛitra was annual and fought in winter—Inexplicable except on the Arctic theory —The exact date of Indra's fight with Vṛitra preserved in the Ṛig-Veda—The real meaning of chatvâriṁshyâm sharadi explained—Shambara found on the 40th day of sharad —Denotes the commencement of the long night —Vedic passages shewing sharad to be the last season of sunshine—Paleographical evidence for reckoning time by seasons —Similar reckoning in the Avesta — 100 autumnal forts of Vṛitra and the killing of the watery demon with ice ex- plained —The seven rivers released by Indra—Cannot be terres- trial, nor the rivers of the Panjaub —The interpretation of West- ern scholars examined and rejected—The connection between the seven rivers and the seven suns pointed out —The origin of the phrase Hapta-hindu in the Avesta—Probably a transference of an old mythological name to a place in the new home —Vṛitra's legend Arctic in origin —Captive waters represent the yearly struggle between light and the darkness in the ancient Arctic home. 233 CHAPTER X. VEDIC MYTHS—THE MATUTINAL DEITIES. Vernal theory and the legends of the Ashvins—The part played by the Ashvins in the struggle for waters and light —Intelligible only on the Arctic theory—Their exploits and legends—Saving or rejuve- nating, rescuing from the ocean, or restoring the eye-sight or light, to Chyavâna, Rebha, Bhujyu, Atri, Vandana &c.—All ex- plained at present as referring to the rescue of the daily dawn or the vernal restoration of the powers of the winter sun—But the theory fails to explain references to blindness or darkness in se- veral legends—Nor does it account for the duration of the distress of the Ashvins' protégés —Nor for the character of the place of distress from which the proteges were saved—Bottomless and dark ocean really means the nether world—A bowl with bottom up and mouth downwards indicates the inverted hemisphere of the

XX CONTENTS. PAGE Hades—Legend of Ṛijrâshva—The slaughter of a hundred sheep represents the conversion of a hundred days into so many nights —The story of Saptavadhri or the seven-eunuch, praying for safe delivery after ten months of gestation—Remains unexplained up to the present—The interior of heaven and earth is conceived in the Veda as the womb in which the sun moves when above the horizon—Ten months' gestation thus represents the ten months when the Sun is above the horizon—Prayer for safe delivery in- dicates the perils of the long night—Riddle or paradox of a child becoming invisible as soon as born—The story of the hidden Agni refers to the same phenomenon—Probable origin of the Paurâṇic story of Kumâra or Kârttikeya —Superiority of the Arctic over the Vernal theory in explaining the legends of the Ashvins— The legend of Indra's stealing Sûrya's wheel —The meaning of dasha-prapitve discussed—Indicates darkness on the completion of ten months—Viṣhṇu's three strides—Different opinions about their nature quoted—Viṣhṇu's strides represent the yearly course of the sun —and his third invisible step represents the nether world— Viṣhṇu's opprobrious name, Shipiviṣhṭha—Represents the dark or the diseased sun during the long Arctic night—The three abodes of Savitṛi, Agni and the Ashvins compared to Vish- ṇu's third step—The legend of Trita Âptya—Trita, or the third, represents the third part of the year—The Indo-Germanic origin of the legend—The Âpas—Their character and nature de- scribed—Seven-fold and ten-fold division of things in the Vedic literature—Various instances of seven-fold and ten-fold division collected—This two-fold division probably due to the seven and ten months' period of sunshine in the Arctic region—The Dâsha- râjña fight—Represents struggle with the ten-fold division of darkness—Bṛihaspati and his lost wife in the Ṛig-Veda—The ten non-sacrificing kings and Râvaṇa compared—Mythical element in the Râmâyaṇa probably derived from the Vedic mythology—Ha- numân and Vṛiṣhâkapi—Was Râmayaṇa copied from Homer— Both may have a common source—Conclusion. . . . 297 CHAPTER XI THE AVESTIC EVIDENCE. Nature of Avestic evidence stated—Different views of scholars re- garding its character—Necessity of re-examining the subject—

CONTENTS. xxi PAGE An abstract of the first Fargard of the Vendidad—Sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda with their modern equivalents &c.— Airyana Vaejo, the first created land represents the Paradise of the Iranians—Different views regarding its position—Darmesteter, Spiegel and others locate it in the east; Haug and Bunsen in the far north—Darmesteter’s argument examined—Airyana Vaejo can- not be determined from the position of Vanguhi—Identification of Rangha with the Caspian Sea or the westernmost river doubt- ful—Rangha is probably the same as Rasâ in the Ṛig-Veda, X, 75, 6—Unsoundness of Darmesteter’s reasoning—The position of the Airyana Vaejo must be determined from its special characteristics found in the Avesta—The passage where ten months’ winter is said to be such a characteristic cited—Ten months’ winter first in- troduced into the happy land by Angra Mainyu—Indicates that be- fore the fiend’s invasion there must have been ten months’ summer and two months winter in the land—Sudden change in the Polar climate fully confirmed by latest geological researches—Two months winter necessarily synchronous with long Arctic night —The tradition about seven months summer and five months win- ter also refers to the original climate in the Airyana Vaejo—Men- tioned in the Bundahish—Not inconsistent with the tradition of ten months summer recorded in the original passage—Both pos- sible in the Arctic regions—Similar statements in the Ṛig-Veda —Coincidence between seven months summer, the legend of Adi- ti, and the date of Indra’s fight with Shambara, pointed out —Summary of the second Fargard—Yima’s Vara in the Airyana Vaejo—Annual sunrise and a year long-day therein—Shows that the Airyana Vaejo must be located near the North Pole and not to the east of Iran—The account too graphic to be imaginary or my- thical—Represents the advent of the Glacial epoch in the land—It is the oldest human testimony to the advent of the Ice-age, de- stroying the Arctic home—Special importance of the Avestic evi- dence pointed out—Fully corroborated by scientific evidence—Mi- gration from Airyana Vaejo rendered necessary by glaciation —Sixteen lands in the first Fargard therefore represent successive stages of migration to Central Asia—Establishes the historical character of the first Fargard—The legend of deluge in the Shata- patha Brâhmaṇa—Probably refers to the same event as the Aves- tic legends—Other Vedic passages indicating the northern origin of Indian Aryas—Conclusion to be drawn from the Vedic and Avestic evidence combined. . . . . . 335

xxii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XII. COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY. The value of Comparative Mythology as corroborative evidence—Its use in the present case—The ancient calendars of the European Aryan races—The plurality of Dawns in the Lettish, the Greek and the Celtic mythology—The ancient Roman year of ten months and Numa's reform thereof—Plutarch's view—Improba- bility of Lignana's theory pointed out—The ancient Celtic year —Closed with the last day of October and marked the commence- ment of winter and darkness—The winter feast celebrated on the day—The mid-summer feast of Lugnassad on the first of August—The commencement of summer on the first of May —The date of the battle of Moytura—Similar duration of the old Norse year—Comparison with the ancient Greek calendar—All indicate six months' light and six months' darkness—Corrobora- tion derived from comparative philology—Two divisions of the year in primeval times—The Maid of Nine Forms in the Celtic mythology—The Nine paces of Thor in the Norse legend—Com- pared with the Vedic Navagvas and Vifra Navaza in the Avesta —Balder's home in the heavens—Indicates the long Arctic day —The Slavonic story of Ivan and his two brothers—Continuous night in Ivan's home—Comparison with the Vedic legend of Trita —The Slavonic winter demon—The story of Dawn and Gloaming in the Finnish mythology—Indicates a long day of four weeks —Celtic and Teutonic legends representing the Sun-god's annual struggle with darkness—Baldur and Hodur, Cuchulainn and Fo- mori—Temporary sickness and indisposition of gods and heroes —Prof. Rhys' views thereon—The affliction indicates winter darkness—Celtic and Teutonic myths indicating long continuous day and night—All point to a primeval home in the Arctic region —Recent ethnological researches in favour of European home re- ferred to—Indicate northern Germany or Scandinavia—The ne- cessity of going still farther North—Prof. Rhys suggests Finland or White Sea—Not inconsistent with the theory which seeks to make the North Pole the home of the whole human race—Prof. Rhys' method and conclusion—Primeval Arctic home established alike by the traditions of the eastern and western Aryas—Its rela- tion with the general theory about the cradle of the human race . at the North Pole explained. . : . . . . 391

CONTENTS. xxiii PAGE CHAPTER XIII. THE BEARING OF OUR RESULTS ON THE HISTORY OF PRIMITIVE ARYAN CULTURE AND RELIGION. Proofs of the theory of the Arctic home summed up—They clearly indicate a Polar home, but the exact spot in the Arctic regions, that is, north of Europe or Asia, still undeterminable —An Arctic home possible only in inter-Glacial times according to geology —Ancient Vedic chronology and calendar examined—The inter- val between the commencement of the Post-Glacial era and the Orion period cannot, according to it, be so great as 8,000 years —Supported by the moderate estimate of the American geologists —Purânic chronology of yugas, manvantaras and kalpas—Rangâ- chârya's and Aiyer's views thereon—Later Purânic system evolved out of an original cycle of four yugas of 10,000 years, since the last deluge —The theory of 'divine years' unknown to Manu and Vyâsa—Adopted by later writers who could not believe that they lived in the Krita age —The original tradition of 10,000 years since the last deluge fully in accord with Vedic chronology —And also with the American estimate of 8,000 B. C. for the be- ginning of the Post-Glacial period —All prove the existence of a Polar Aryan home before 8,000 B. C. —Trustworthiness of the ancient traditions and the method of preserving them—The theory of the Polar origin of the whole human race not inconsistent with the theory of the Arctic Aryan home —Current views regarding primitive Aryan culture and religion examined—Primitive Aryan man and his civilisation cannot now be treated as post-Glacial —Certain destruction of the primeval civilization and culture by the Ice Age —Shortcomings or defects in the civilisation of the Neolithic Aryan races in Europe must, therefore, be ascribed to a post-diluvian relapse into barbarism—Life and calendar in the in- ter-Glacial Arctic home—Devayâna and Pitriyâna and the deities worshipped during the period —The ancient sacrifices of the Aryan race—The degree of civilisation reached by the undivided Aryans in their Arctic home—The results of Comparative Philo- logy stated—The civilisation disclosed by them must be taken to be the minimum or the lowest, that can be predicated of the un- divided Aryans—The culture of the undivided Aryans higher than the culture of the Stone or the Metal age—Use of metal coins among them highly probable —Beginnings of the Aryan language

xxiv CONTENTS. PAGE or the differentiation of human races according to colour or lan- guage still untraceable—The origin of Aryan man and religion lost in geological antiquity—Theological views regarding the ori- gin and character of the Vedas summarised—Differently supported by writers on the different schools of philosophy—Patañjali's and Vyâsa's view that the Vedas were lost in the last deluge and repro- mulgated in substance, if not in form, at the beginning of the new age—The four periods into which the Post-Glacial era may be divided on astronomical grounds—Compared with the character- istics of the four yugas given in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa—Theolo- gical and historical views regarding the origin &c., of the Vedas stated in parallel columns and compared—Vedic texts, showing that the subject matter of the hymns is ancient though the langu- age may be new, cited—Vedic deities and their exploits all said to be ancient—Improbability of Dr. Muir's suggested reconcilia- tion—Vedas, or rather Vedic religion, shown to be inter-Glacial in substance though post-Glacial in form—Concluding remarks. 414 GENERAL INDEX. . . . : . . . 467 INDEX OF VEDIC AND AVESTIC PASSAGES.

THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. CHAPTER I. PREHISTORIC TIMES. The Historic Period—Preceded by myths and traditions—The Science of Mythology—Fresh impulse given to it by Compara- tive Philology—Unity of Aryan races and languages—The system of interpreting myths, and the theory of Asiatic Home —Recent discoveries in Geology and Archæology—Requiring revision of old theories—The Vedas still partially unintelli- gible—New key to their interpretation supplied by recent discoveries—The Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Represent different stages of civilization in Prehistoric times—The Ages not necessarily synchronous in different countries—Distinc- tion between Neolithic and Palæolithic or new and old Stone Age—The Geological eras and periods—Their correlation with the three Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Palæolithic Age probably inter-glacial—Man in Quaternary and Tertiary eras—Date of the Neolithic Age—5000 B. C. from lake-dwell- ings—Peat-mosses of Denmark—Ages of Beach, Oak and Fir —Date of the Palæolithic or the commencement of the Post- Glacial period—Different estimates of European and American geologists—Freshness of fossil deposits in Siberia—Favours American estimate of 8000 years—Neolithic races—Dolicho- cephalic and Brachy-cephalic—Modern European races des- cended from them—Controversy as to which of these repre- sent the Primitive Aryans in Europe—Different views of German and French writers—Social condition of the Neoli- thic races and the primitive Aryans—Dr. Schrader's view— Neolithic Aryan race in Europe cannot be regarded as autoch- thonous—Nor descended from the Palæolithic man—The question of the original Aryan home still unsettled. If we trace the history of any nation backwards into the past, we come at last to a period of myths and tradi- tions which eventually fade away into impenetrable darkness.

2 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. In some cases, as in that of Greece, the historic period goes back to 1000 B. C., while in the case of Egypt the contemporaneous records, recently unearthed from ancient tombs and monuments, carry back its history upto about 5000 B. C. But in either case the historic period, the oldest limit of which may be taken to be 5000 or 6000 B. C., is preceded by a period of myths and tra- ditions; and as these were the only materials available for the study of prehistoric man up to the middle of the nineteenth century, various attempts were made to systematise these myths, to explain them rationally and see if they shed any light on the early history of man. But, as observed by Prof. Max Muller, "it was felt by all unprejudiced scholars that none of these systems of interpretation was in the least satis- factory." "The first impulse to 'a new consideration of the mythological problem" observes the same learned author "came from the study of comparative philology." Through the dis- covery of the ancient language and sacred books of India—a discovery, which the Professor compares with the discovery of the new world, and through the discovery of the intimate re- lationship between Sanskrit and Zend on the one hand and the languages of the principal races of Europe on the other, a com- plete revolution took place in the views commonly entertained of the ancient history of the world. 1 It was perceived that the languages of the principal European nations—ancient and mo- dern—bore a close resemblance to the languages spoken by the Brahmans of India and the followers of Zoroaster; and from this affinity of the Indo-Germanic languages it followed inevitably that all these languages must be the off-shoots or dialects of a single primitive tongue, and the assumption of such a primitive language further implied the existence of a primitive Aryan people. The study of Vedic literature and classical Sanskrit by Western scholars thus gradually effected

1. See Lectures on the Science of Language, Vol. II, pp. 445-6.

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 3 a revolution in their ideas regarding the history and culture of man in ancient times. Dr. Schrader in his work on the Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples gives an exhaustive summary of the conclusions arrived at by the methods of comparative philology regarding the primitive culture of the Aryan people, and those that desire to have further information on the subject must refer to that interesting book. For our present purpose it is sufficient to state that comparative mythologists and philologists were in the sole possession of this field, until the researches of the latter half of the nineteenth century placed within our reach new materials for the study of man not only in prehistoric times but in such remote ages that compared with them the prehistoric period appeared to be quite recent. The mythologists carried on their researches at a time when man was believed to be post-glacial, and when the physical and geographical surroundings of the ancient man were assumed not to have been materially different from those of the present day. All ancient myths were, therefore, interpreted on the assump- tion that they were formed and developed in countries, the climatic or other conditions of which varied very little, if at all, from those by which we are now surrounded. Thus every Vedic myth or legend was explained either on the Storm or the Dawn theory, though in some cases it was felt that the explanation was not at all satisfactory. Indra was only a Storm- God and Vritra the demon of drought or darkness brought on by the daily setting of the sun. This system of interpretation was first put forward by the Indian Etymologists; and though it has been improved upon by Western Vedic scholars, yet upto now it has remained practically unchanged in character. It was again believed that we must look for the original home of the Aryan race somewhere in Central Asia, and that the Vedic hymns, which were supposed to be composed after the separation of the

4 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Indian Aryans from the common stock, contained the ideas only of that branch of the Aryan race which lived in the Temperate zone. The scientific researches of the latter half of the nineteenth century have, however, given a rude shock to these theories. From hundreds of stone and bronze imple- ments found buried in the various places in Europe the archæo- logists have now established the chronological sequence of the Iron, the Bronze and the Stone age in times preceding the historic period. But the most important event of the latter half of the last century, so far as it concerns our subject, was the discovery of the evidence proving the existence of the Glacial period at the close of Quaternary era, and the high antiquity of man, who was shown to have lived not only throughout the Quater- nary but also in the Tertiary era, when the climatic conditions of the globe were quite different from those in the present or the Post-Glacial period. The remains of animals and men found in the Neolithic or Palæolithic strata also threw new light on the ancient races inhabiting the countries where these remains were found; and it soon became evident that the time- telescope set up by the mythologists must be adjusted to a wider range, and the results previously arrived at by the study of myths and legends must be checked in the light of the facts disclosed by these scientific discoveries. The philologists had now to be more cautious in formulating their views, and some of them soon realised the force of the arguments advanced on the strength of these scientific discoveries. The works of German scholars, like Posche and Penka, freely challenged the Asiatic theory re- garding the original home of the Aryan race, and it is now generally recognised that we must give up that theory and seek for the original home of the Aryans somewhere else in the further north. Canon Taylor in his Origin of the Aryans has summed up the work done during the last few years in this

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 5 direction. “It was” he says “mainly a destructive work,” and concludes his book with the observation that “the whilom tyranny of the Sanskritists is happily overpast, and it is seen that hasty philological deductions require to be systematically checked by the conclusions of prehistoric archæology, craniology, an- thropology, geology and common sense.” Had the remark not been used as a peroration at the end of the book, it would certainly be open to the objection that it unnecessarily deprecates the labours of the comparative mythologists and philologists. In every department of human knowledge old conclusions have always to be revised in the light of new discoveries, but for that reason it would never be just to find fault with those whose lot it was to work earlier in the same field with scanty and insufficient materials. But whilst the conclusions of the philologists and mytholo- gists are thus being revised in the light of new scientific dis- coveries, an equally important work yet remains to be done. It has been stated above that the discovery of the Vedic literature imparted a fresh impulse to the study of myths and legends. But the Vedas themselves, which admittedly form the oldest records of the Aryan race, are as yet imperfectly understood. They had already grown unintelligible to a certain extent even in the days of the Brâhmanas several centuries before Christ, and had it not been for the labours of Indian Etymologists and Grammarians, they would have remained a sealed book upto the present time. The Western Scholars have indeed deve- loped, to a certain extent, these Native methods of interpretation with the aid of facts brought to light by comparative philo- logy and mythology. But no etymological or philological analysis can help us in thoroughly understanding a passage which contains ideas and sentiments foreign or unfamiliar to us. This is one of the principal difficulties of Vedic interpretation. The Storm or the Dawn