वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

CONTENTS, . xix PAGE —Express passages from the Avesta to that effect—The sun stop- ping for a long time in waters —Avestic passages in support there- of—Its effect on the disposal of corpses —Darkness synchronous with the cessation of the flow of waters in winter—Its long dura- tion—Cosmic circulation of waters in other mythologies—Express texts showing that the fight with Vṛitra was annual and fought in winter—Inexplicable except on the Arctic theory —The exact date of Indra's fight with Vṛitra preserved in the Ṛig-Veda—The real meaning of chatvâriṁshyâm sharadi explained—Shambara found on the 40th day of sharad —Denotes the commencement of the long night —Vedic passages shewing sharad to be the last season of sunshine—Paleographical evidence for reckoning time by seasons —Similar reckoning in the Avesta — 100 autumnal forts of Vṛitra and the killing of the watery demon with ice ex- plained —The seven rivers released by Indra—Cannot be terres- trial, nor the rivers of the Panjaub —The interpretation of West- ern scholars examined and rejected—The connection between the seven rivers and the seven suns pointed out —The origin of the phrase Hapta-hindu in the Avesta—Probably a transference of an old mythological name to a place in the new home —Vṛitra's legend Arctic in origin —Captive waters represent the yearly struggle between light and the darkness in the ancient Arctic home. 233 CHAPTER X. VEDIC MYTHS—THE MATUTINAL DEITIES. Vernal theory and the legends of the Ashvins—The part played by the Ashvins in the struggle for waters and light —Intelligible only on the Arctic theory—Their exploits and legends—Saving or rejuve- nating, rescuing from the ocean, or restoring the eye-sight or light, to Chyavâna, Rebha, Bhujyu, Atri, Vandana &c.—All ex- plained at present as referring to the rescue of the daily dawn or the vernal restoration of the powers of the winter sun—But the theory fails to explain references to blindness or darkness in se- veral legends—Nor does it account for the duration of the distress of the Ashvins' protégés —Nor for the character of the place of distress from which the proteges were saved—Bottomless and dark ocean really means the nether world—A bowl with bottom up and mouth downwards indicates the inverted hemisphere of the

XX CONTENTS. PAGE Hades—Legend of Ṛijrâshva—The slaughter of a hundred sheep represents the conversion of a hundred days into so many nights —The story of Saptavadhri or the seven-eunuch, praying for safe delivery after ten months of gestation—Remains unexplained up to the present—The interior of heaven and earth is conceived in the Veda as the womb in which the sun moves when above the horizon—Ten months' gestation thus represents the ten months when the Sun is above the horizon—Prayer for safe delivery in- dicates the perils of the long night—Riddle or paradox of a child becoming invisible as soon as born—The story of the hidden Agni refers to the same phenomenon—Probable origin of the Paurâṇic story of Kumâra or Kârttikeya —Superiority of the Arctic over the Vernal theory in explaining the legends of the Ashvins— The legend of Indra's stealing Sûrya's wheel —The meaning of dasha-prapitve discussed—Indicates darkness on the completion of ten months—Viṣhṇu's three strides—Different opinions about their nature quoted—Viṣhṇu's strides represent the yearly course of the sun —and his third invisible step represents the nether world— Viṣhṇu's opprobrious name, Shipiviṣhṭha—Represents the dark or the diseased sun during the long Arctic night—The three abodes of Savitṛi, Agni and the Ashvins compared to Vish- ṇu's third step—The legend of Trita Âptya—Trita, or the third, represents the third part of the year—The Indo-Germanic origin of the legend—The Âpas—Their character and nature de- scribed—Seven-fold and ten-fold division of things in the Vedic literature—Various instances of seven-fold and ten-fold division collected—This two-fold division probably due to the seven and ten months' period of sunshine in the Arctic region—The Dâsha- râjña fight—Represents struggle with the ten-fold division of darkness—Bṛihaspati and his lost wife in the Ṛig-Veda—The ten non-sacrificing kings and Râvaṇa compared—Mythical element in the Râmâyaṇa probably derived from the Vedic mythology—Ha- numân and Vṛiṣhâkapi—Was Râmayaṇa copied from Homer— Both may have a common source—Conclusion. . . . 297 CHAPTER XI THE AVESTIC EVIDENCE. Nature of Avestic evidence stated—Different views of scholars re- garding its character—Necessity of re-examining the subject—

CONTENTS. xxi PAGE An abstract of the first Fargard of the Vendidad—Sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda with their modern equivalents &c.— Airyana Vaejo, the first created land represents the Paradise of the Iranians—Different views regarding its position—Darmesteter, Spiegel and others locate it in the east; Haug and Bunsen in the far north—Darmesteter’s argument examined—Airyana Vaejo can- not be determined from the position of Vanguhi—Identification of Rangha with the Caspian Sea or the westernmost river doubt- ful—Rangha is probably the same as Rasâ in the Ṛig-Veda, X, 75, 6—Unsoundness of Darmesteter’s reasoning—The position of the Airyana Vaejo must be determined from its special characteristics found in the Avesta—The passage where ten months’ winter is said to be such a characteristic cited—Ten months’ winter first in- troduced into the happy land by Angra Mainyu—Indicates that be- fore the fiend’s invasion there must have been ten months’ summer and two months winter in the land—Sudden change in the Polar climate fully confirmed by latest geological researches—Two months winter necessarily synchronous with long Arctic night —The tradition about seven months summer and five months win- ter also refers to the original climate in the Airyana Vaejo—Men- tioned in the Bundahish—Not inconsistent with the tradition of ten months summer recorded in the original passage—Both pos- sible in the Arctic regions—Similar statements in the Ṛig-Veda —Coincidence between seven months summer, the legend of Adi- ti, and the date of Indra’s fight with Shambara, pointed out —Summary of the second Fargard—Yima’s Vara in the Airyana Vaejo—Annual sunrise and a year long-day therein—Shows that the Airyana Vaejo must be located near the North Pole and not to the east of Iran—The account too graphic to be imaginary or my- thical—Represents the advent of the Glacial epoch in the land—It is the oldest human testimony to the advent of the Ice-age, de- stroying the Arctic home—Special importance of the Avestic evi- dence pointed out—Fully corroborated by scientific evidence—Mi- gration from Airyana Vaejo rendered necessary by glaciation —Sixteen lands in the first Fargard therefore represent successive stages of migration to Central Asia—Establishes the historical character of the first Fargard—The legend of deluge in the Shata- patha Brâhmaṇa—Probably refers to the same event as the Aves- tic legends—Other Vedic passages indicating the northern origin of Indian Aryas—Conclusion to be drawn from the Vedic and Avestic evidence combined. . . . . . 335

xxii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XII. COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY. The value of Comparative Mythology as corroborative evidence—Its use in the present case—The ancient calendars of the European Aryan races—The plurality of Dawns in the Lettish, the Greek and the Celtic mythology—The ancient Roman year of ten months and Numa's reform thereof—Plutarch's view—Improba- bility of Lignana's theory pointed out—The ancient Celtic year —Closed with the last day of October and marked the commence- ment of winter and darkness—The winter feast celebrated on the day—The mid-summer feast of Lugnassad on the first of August—The commencement of summer on the first of May —The date of the battle of Moytura—Similar duration of the old Norse year—Comparison with the ancient Greek calendar—All indicate six months' light and six months' darkness—Corrobora- tion derived from comparative philology—Two divisions of the year in primeval times—The Maid of Nine Forms in the Celtic mythology—The Nine paces of Thor in the Norse legend—Com- pared with the Vedic Navagvas and Vifra Navaza in the Avesta —Balder's home in the heavens—Indicates the long Arctic day —The Slavonic story of Ivan and his two brothers—Continuous night in Ivan's home—Comparison with the Vedic legend of Trita —The Slavonic winter demon—The story of Dawn and Gloaming in the Finnish mythology—Indicates a long day of four weeks —Celtic and Teutonic legends representing the Sun-god's annual struggle with darkness—Baldur and Hodur, Cuchulainn and Fo- mori—Temporary sickness and indisposition of gods and heroes —Prof. Rhys' views thereon—The affliction indicates winter darkness—Celtic and Teutonic myths indicating long continuous day and night—All point to a primeval home in the Arctic region —Recent ethnological researches in favour of European home re- ferred to—Indicate northern Germany or Scandinavia—The ne- cessity of going still farther North—Prof. Rhys suggests Finland or White Sea—Not inconsistent with the theory which seeks to make the North Pole the home of the whole human race—Prof. Rhys' method and conclusion—Primeval Arctic home established alike by the traditions of the eastern and western Aryas—Its rela- tion with the general theory about the cradle of the human race . at the North Pole explained. . : . . . . 391

CONTENTS. xxiii PAGE CHAPTER XIII. THE BEARING OF OUR RESULTS ON THE HISTORY OF PRIMITIVE ARYAN CULTURE AND RELIGION. Proofs of the theory of the Arctic home summed up—They clearly indicate a Polar home, but the exact spot in the Arctic regions, that is, north of Europe or Asia, still undeterminable —An Arctic home possible only in inter-Glacial times according to geology —Ancient Vedic chronology and calendar examined—The inter- val between the commencement of the Post-Glacial era and the Orion period cannot, according to it, be so great as 8,000 years —Supported by the moderate estimate of the American geologists —Purânic chronology of yugas, manvantaras and kalpas—Rangâ- chârya's and Aiyer's views thereon—Later Purânic system evolved out of an original cycle of four yugas of 10,000 years, since the last deluge —The theory of 'divine years' unknown to Manu and Vyâsa—Adopted by later writers who could not believe that they lived in the Krita age —The original tradition of 10,000 years since the last deluge fully in accord with Vedic chronology —And also with the American estimate of 8,000 B. C. for the be- ginning of the Post-Glacial period —All prove the existence of a Polar Aryan home before 8,000 B. C. —Trustworthiness of the ancient traditions and the method of preserving them—The theory of the Polar origin of the whole human race not inconsistent with the theory of the Arctic Aryan home —Current views regarding primitive Aryan culture and religion examined—Primitive Aryan man and his civilisation cannot now be treated as post-Glacial —Certain destruction of the primeval civilization and culture by the Ice Age —Shortcomings or defects in the civilisation of the Neolithic Aryan races in Europe must, therefore, be ascribed to a post-diluvian relapse into barbarism—Life and calendar in the in- ter-Glacial Arctic home—Devayâna and Pitriyâna and the deities worshipped during the period —The ancient sacrifices of the Aryan race—The degree of civilisation reached by the undivided Aryans in their Arctic home—The results of Comparative Philo- logy stated—The civilisation disclosed by them must be taken to be the minimum or the lowest, that can be predicated of the un- divided Aryans—The culture of the undivided Aryans higher than the culture of the Stone or the Metal age—Use of metal coins among them highly probable —Beginnings of the Aryan language

xxiv CONTENTS. PAGE or the differentiation of human races according to colour or lan- guage still untraceable—The origin of Aryan man and religion lost in geological antiquity—Theological views regarding the ori- gin and character of the Vedas summarised—Differently supported by writers on the different schools of philosophy—Patañjali's and Vyâsa's view that the Vedas were lost in the last deluge and repro- mulgated in substance, if not in form, at the beginning of the new age—The four periods into which the Post-Glacial era may be divided on astronomical grounds—Compared with the character- istics of the four yugas given in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa—Theolo- gical and historical views regarding the origin &c., of the Vedas stated in parallel columns and compared—Vedic texts, showing that the subject matter of the hymns is ancient though the langu- age may be new, cited—Vedic deities and their exploits all said to be ancient—Improbability of Dr. Muir's suggested reconcilia- tion—Vedas, or rather Vedic religion, shown to be inter-Glacial in substance though post-Glacial in form—Concluding remarks. 414 GENERAL INDEX. . . . : . . . 467 INDEX OF VEDIC AND AVESTIC PASSAGES.

THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. CHAPTER I. PREHISTORIC TIMES. The Historic Period—Preceded by myths and traditions—The Science of Mythology—Fresh impulse given to it by Compara- tive Philology—Unity of Aryan races and languages—The system of interpreting myths, and the theory of Asiatic Home —Recent discoveries in Geology and Archæology—Requiring revision of old theories—The Vedas still partially unintelli- gible—New key to their interpretation supplied by recent discoveries—The Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Represent different stages of civilization in Prehistoric times—The Ages not necessarily synchronous in different countries—Distinc- tion between Neolithic and Palæolithic or new and old Stone Age—The Geological eras and periods—Their correlation with the three Ages of Iron, Bronze and Stone—Palæolithic Age probably inter-glacial—Man in Quaternary and Tertiary eras—Date of the Neolithic Age—5000 B. C. from lake-dwell- ings—Peat-mosses of Denmark—Ages of Beach, Oak and Fir —Date of the Palæolithic or the commencement of the Post- Glacial period—Different estimates of European and American geologists—Freshness of fossil deposits in Siberia—Favours American estimate of 8000 years—Neolithic races—Dolicho- cephalic and Brachy-cephalic—Modern European races des- cended from them—Controversy as to which of these repre- sent the Primitive Aryans in Europe—Different views of German and French writers—Social condition of the Neoli- thic races and the primitive Aryans—Dr. Schrader's view— Neolithic Aryan race in Europe cannot be regarded as autoch- thonous—Nor descended from the Palæolithic man—The question of the original Aryan home still unsettled. If we trace the history of any nation backwards into the past, we come at last to a period of myths and tradi- tions which eventually fade away into impenetrable darkness.

2 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. In some cases, as in that of Greece, the historic period goes back to 1000 B. C., while in the case of Egypt the contemporaneous records, recently unearthed from ancient tombs and monuments, carry back its history upto about 5000 B. C. But in either case the historic period, the oldest limit of which may be taken to be 5000 or 6000 B. C., is preceded by a period of myths and tra- ditions; and as these were the only materials available for the study of prehistoric man up to the middle of the nineteenth century, various attempts were made to systematise these myths, to explain them rationally and see if they shed any light on the early history of man. But, as observed by Prof. Max Muller, "it was felt by all unprejudiced scholars that none of these systems of interpretation was in the least satis- factory." "The first impulse to 'a new consideration of the mythological problem" observes the same learned author "came from the study of comparative philology." Through the dis- covery of the ancient language and sacred books of India—a discovery, which the Professor compares with the discovery of the new world, and through the discovery of the intimate re- lationship between Sanskrit and Zend on the one hand and the languages of the principal races of Europe on the other, a com- plete revolution took place in the views commonly entertained of the ancient history of the world. 1 It was perceived that the languages of the principal European nations—ancient and mo- dern—bore a close resemblance to the languages spoken by the Brahmans of India and the followers of Zoroaster; and from this affinity of the Indo-Germanic languages it followed inevitably that all these languages must be the off-shoots or dialects of a single primitive tongue, and the assumption of such a primitive language further implied the existence of a primitive Aryan people. The study of Vedic literature and classical Sanskrit by Western scholars thus gradually effected

1. See Lectures on the Science of Language, Vol. II, pp. 445-6.

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 3 a revolution in their ideas regarding the history and culture of man in ancient times. Dr. Schrader in his work on the Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples gives an exhaustive summary of the conclusions arrived at by the methods of comparative philology regarding the primitive culture of the Aryan people, and those that desire to have further information on the subject must refer to that interesting book. For our present purpose it is sufficient to state that comparative mythologists and philologists were in the sole possession of this field, until the researches of the latter half of the nineteenth century placed within our reach new materials for the study of man not only in prehistoric times but in such remote ages that compared with them the prehistoric period appeared to be quite recent. The mythologists carried on their researches at a time when man was believed to be post-glacial, and when the physical and geographical surroundings of the ancient man were assumed not to have been materially different from those of the present day. All ancient myths were, therefore, interpreted on the assump- tion that they were formed and developed in countries, the climatic or other conditions of which varied very little, if at all, from those by which we are now surrounded. Thus every Vedic myth or legend was explained either on the Storm or the Dawn theory, though in some cases it was felt that the explanation was not at all satisfactory. Indra was only a Storm- God and Vritra the demon of drought or darkness brought on by the daily setting of the sun. This system of interpretation was first put forward by the Indian Etymologists; and though it has been improved upon by Western Vedic scholars, yet upto now it has remained practically unchanged in character. It was again believed that we must look for the original home of the Aryan race somewhere in Central Asia, and that the Vedic hymns, which were supposed to be composed after the separation of the

4 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Indian Aryans from the common stock, contained the ideas only of that branch of the Aryan race which lived in the Temperate zone. The scientific researches of the latter half of the nineteenth century have, however, given a rude shock to these theories. From hundreds of stone and bronze imple- ments found buried in the various places in Europe the archæo- logists have now established the chronological sequence of the Iron, the Bronze and the Stone age in times preceding the historic period. But the most important event of the latter half of the last century, so far as it concerns our subject, was the discovery of the evidence proving the existence of the Glacial period at the close of Quaternary era, and the high antiquity of man, who was shown to have lived not only throughout the Quater- nary but also in the Tertiary era, when the climatic conditions of the globe were quite different from those in the present or the Post-Glacial period. The remains of animals and men found in the Neolithic or Palæolithic strata also threw new light on the ancient races inhabiting the countries where these remains were found; and it soon became evident that the time- telescope set up by the mythologists must be adjusted to a wider range, and the results previously arrived at by the study of myths and legends must be checked in the light of the facts disclosed by these scientific discoveries. The philologists had now to be more cautious in formulating their views, and some of them soon realised the force of the arguments advanced on the strength of these scientific discoveries. The works of German scholars, like Posche and Penka, freely challenged the Asiatic theory re- garding the original home of the Aryan race, and it is now generally recognised that we must give up that theory and seek for the original home of the Aryans somewhere else in the further north. Canon Taylor in his Origin of the Aryans has summed up the work done during the last few years in this

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 5 direction. “It was” he says “mainly a destructive work,” and concludes his book with the observation that “the whilom tyranny of the Sanskritists is happily overpast, and it is seen that hasty philological deductions require to be systematically checked by the conclusions of prehistoric archæology, craniology, an- thropology, geology and common sense.” Had the remark not been used as a peroration at the end of the book, it would certainly be open to the objection that it unnecessarily deprecates the labours of the comparative mythologists and philologists. In every department of human knowledge old conclusions have always to be revised in the light of new discoveries, but for that reason it would never be just to find fault with those whose lot it was to work earlier in the same field with scanty and insufficient materials. But whilst the conclusions of the philologists and mytholo- gists are thus being revised in the light of new scientific dis- coveries, an equally important work yet remains to be done. It has been stated above that the discovery of the Vedic literature imparted a fresh impulse to the study of myths and legends. But the Vedas themselves, which admittedly form the oldest records of the Aryan race, are as yet imperfectly understood. They had already grown unintelligible to a certain extent even in the days of the Brâhmanas several centuries before Christ, and had it not been for the labours of Indian Etymologists and Grammarians, they would have remained a sealed book upto the present time. The Western Scholars have indeed deve- loped, to a certain extent, these Native methods of interpretation with the aid of facts brought to light by comparative philo- logy and mythology. But no etymological or philological analysis can help us in thoroughly understanding a passage which contains ideas and sentiments foreign or unfamiliar to us. This is one of the principal difficulties of Vedic interpretation. The Storm or the Dawn

6 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. theory may help us in understanding some of the legends in this ancient book. But there are passages, which, in spite of their simple diction, are quite unintelligible on any of these theories, and in such cases Native scholars, like Sâyana, are either content with simply paraphrasing the words, or have recourse to distortion of words and phrases in order to make the passages yield a sense intelligible to them; while some of the Western scholars are apt to regard such texts as corrupt or imperfect. In either case, however, it is an undoubted fact that some Vedic texts are yet unintelligible, and, therefore, untranslatable. Prof. Max Muller was fully alive to these diffi- culties. "A translation of the Rig-Veda," he observes in his introduction to the translation of the Vedic hymns in the Sacred Books of the East series, "is a task for the next century,"* and the only duty of the present scholars is to "reduce the untranslatable portion to a narrower and narrower limit," as has been done by Yâska and other Native scholars. But if the scientific discoveries of the last century have thrown a new light on the history and culture of man in primitive times, we may as well expect to find in them a new key to the interpretation of the Vedic myths and passages, which admittedly preserve for us the oldest beliefs of the Aryan race. If man existed before the last Glacial period and witnessed the gigantic changes which brought on the Ice Age, it is not unnatural to expect that a reference, howsoever concealed and distant, to these events would be found in the oldest traditionary beliefs and memories of mankind. Dr. Warren in his interesting and highly suggestive work the Paradise Found or the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole has attempted to interpret ancient myths and legends in the light of modern scientific discoveries; and has come to the conclusion that the original home of the whole human race must be sought for in regions near the North Pole. My object

• See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, p. xi.

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 7. is not so comprehensive. I intend to confine myself only to the Vedic literature and show that if we read some of the pas- sages in the Vedas, which have hitherto been considered incomprehensible, in the light of the new scientific discoveries, we are forced to the conclusion that the home of the ancestors of the Vedic people was somewhere near the North Pole before the last Glacial epoch. The task is not an easy one, consider- ing the fact that the Vedic passages, on which I rely, had to be, and have been, hitherto either ignored or explained away somehow, or misinterpreted one way or another by Native and European scholars alike. But I hope to show that these inter- pretations, though they have been provisionally accepted, are not satisfactory, and that new discoveries in archæology and geology provide us with a better key for the interpretation of these passages. Thus if some of the conclusions of the my- thologist and the philologist are overthrown by these discoveries, they have rendered a still greater service by furnishing us with a better key for the interpretation of the most ancient Aryan legends, and the results obtained by using the new key cannot, in their turn, fail to throw further light on the primitive history of the Aryan race, and thus supplement or modify the conclusion now arrived at by the archæologist and the geologist. But before proceeding to discuss the Vedic texts which point out to a Polar home, it is necessary to briefly state the results of recent discoveries in archæology, geology and palæontology. My summary must necessarily be very short, for I propose to note down only such facts as will establish the proba- bility of my theory from the geological and palæontological point of view; and for this purpose I have freely drawn upon the works of such well-known writers as Lyell, Geikie, Evans, Lubbock, Croll, Taylor and others. I have also utilised the excellent popular summary of the latest results of these researches in Samuel Laing's Human Origins and other

8 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. works. The belief, that man is post-glacial and that the Polar regions were never suited for human habitation, still lingers in some quarters, and to those who still hold this view any theory regarding the Polar home of the Aryan race may naturally seem to be a priori impossible. It is better, therefore, to begin with a short statement of the latest scientific conclu- sions on these points. Human races of earlier times have left ample evidence of their existence on the surface of this globe; but like the records of the historic period this evidence does not consist of stately tombs and pyramids, or inscriptions and documents. It is of a humbler kind, and consists of hundreds and thousands of rude or polished instruments of stone and metal recently dug out from old camps, fortifications, burial grounds (tumuli), temples, lake- dwellings, &c. of early times spread over the whole of Europe; and in the hands of the archæologist these have been found to give the same results as the hieroglyphics in the hands of the Egyptologist. These early implements of stone and metals were not previously unknown, but they had not attracted the notice of scientific experts till recently; and the peasants in Asia and Europe, when they found them in their fields, could hardly make any better use of them than that of worshipping the implements so found as htunderbolts or fairy arrows shot down from the sky. But now after a careful study of these remains, archæologists have come to the conclusion that these implements, whose human origin is now undoubtedly established, can be classified into those of Stone (including horn, wood or bone), those of Bronze, and those of Iron, representing three different stages of civilization in the progress of man in prehistoric times. Thus the implements of stone, wood or bone, such as chisels, scrapers, arrow-heads, hatches, daggers, etc., were used when the use of metal was yet unknown, and they were gradually supplanted first by the implements of bronze and then of iron,

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 9 when the ancient man discovered the use of these metals. It is not to be supposed, however, that these three different periods of early human civilization were divided by any hard and fast line of division. They represent only a rough classification, the passage from one period into another being slow and gradual. Thus the implements of stone must have continued to be used for a long time after the use of bronze became known to the ancient man, and the same thing must have occurred as he passed from the Bronze to the Iron age. The age of bronze, which is a compound of copper and tin in a definite proportion, requires an antecedent age of copper; but sufficient evidence is not yet found to prove the separate existence of copper and tin ages, and hence it is considered pro- bable that the art of making bronze was not invented in Europe, but was introduced there from other countries either by com- merce or by the Indo-European race going there from outside.* Another fact which requires to be noted in connection with these ages is that the Stone or the Bronze age in one country was not necessarily synchronous with the same age in another country. Thus we find a high state of civilization in Egypt at about 6000 B. C., when the inhabitants of Europe were in the early stages of the Stone age. Similarly Greece had advanced to the Iron age, while Italy was still in the Bronze period, and the West of Europe in the age of Stone. This shows that the progress of civilization was slow in some and rapid in other places, the rate of progress varying according to the local circumstances of each place. Broadly speaking, however, the three periods of Stone, Bronze and Iron may be taken to represent the three stages of civilization anterior to the historic period. Of these three different ages, the oldest or the Stone age is further divided into the Palæolithic and the Neolithic period, or the old and the new Stone age. The distinction is

• Lubbock's Prehistoric Times, 1890 Ed., pp. 4 and 64.

10 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. based upon the fact that the stone implements of the Palæoli- thic age are found to be very rudely fashioned, being merely chipped into shape and never ground or polished as is the case with the implements of the new Stone age. Another characteristic of the Palæolithic period is that the implements of the period are found in places which plainly show a much greater antiquity than can be assigned to the remains of the Neolithic age, the relics of the two ages being hardly, if ever, found together. The third distinction between the Palæolithic and the Neolithic age is that the remains of the Palæolithic man are found associated with those of many great mammals, such as the cave bear, the mammoth and wooly- haired rhinoceros, that became either locally or wholly extinct before the appearance of the Neolithic man on the stage. In short, there is a kind of hiatus or break between the Palæolithic and Neolithic man requiring a separate classification and treat- ment for each. It may also be noted that the climatic conditions and the distribution of land and water in the Palæolithic period were different from those in the Neolithic period; while from the beginning of the Neolithic period the modern conditions, both geographical and climatic, have prevailed almost unaltered upto the present time. To understand the relation of these three ages with the geological periods into which the history of the earth is divided we must briefly consider the geological classification. The geologist takes up the history of the earth at the point where the archæo- logist leaves it, and carries it further back into remote antiquity. His classification is based upon an examination of the whole system of stratified rocks, and not on mere relics found in the surface strata. These stratified rocks have been divided into five principal classes according to the character of the fossils found in them, and they represent five different periods in the history of our planet. These geological eras, like the three ages of Stone,

PREHISTORIC TIMES. ii Bronze and Iron, cannot be separated very sharply from each other. But taken as a whole we can clearly distinguish one era from another by its characteristic fossil remains. Each of these geological ages or eras is again subdivided into a number of different periods. The order of these Eras and Periods, begin- ning with the newest, is as follows:— Eras. Periods. Post-Tertiary or Quaternary... { Recent (Post-Glacial). Pleistocene (Glacial). Tertiary or Cainozoic ... ... ... { Pliocene. Miocene. Oligocene. Eocene. Secondary or Mesozoic ... ... { Cretaceous. Jurassic. Triassic. Primary or Palæozoic ... ... { Permian. Carboniferous. Devonian, and Old Red Sandstone. Silurian. Cambrian. Archæan or Eozoic ... ... ... Fundamental Gneiss. Thus the oldest of the stratified rocks at present known is the Archæan or Eozoic. Next in chronological order come the Primary or the Palæozoic, the Secondary or the Mesozoic, the Tertiary or Cainozoic, and last the Quarternary. The Quaternary era, with which alone we are here concerned, is subdivided into the Pleistocene or the Glacial, and the Recent or the Post-Glacial period; the close of the first and the beginning of the second being marked by the last Gla- cial epoch, or the Ice Age, during which the greater portion of northern Europe and America was covered with an ice-cap several thousand feet in thickness. The Iron age, the Bronze age and the Neolithic age come under the Recent or the

12 . THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Post-Glacial period, while the Palæolithic age is supposed to fall in the Pleistocene period, though some of the palæolithic remains are post-glacial, showing that the palæolithic man must have survived the Ice Age for some time. Latest discoveries and researches enable us to carry the antiquity of man still further by establishing the fact that man existed even in the Tertiary era. But apart from it, there is, now, at any rate, overwhelming evidence to conclusively prove the wide-spread existence of man throughout the Quaternary era, even before the last Glacial period. Various estimates have been made regarding the time of the commencement of the Neolithic age, but the oldest date assigned does not exceed 5000 B. C., a time when flourishing empires existed in Egypt and Chaldea. These estimates are based on the amount of silt which has been found accumulated in some of the smaller lakes in Switzerland since the lake-dwellers of the Neolithic period built their piled villages therein. The peat-mosses of Denmark afford means for another estimate of the early Neolithic period in that country. These mosses are formed in the hollows of the glacial drift into which trees have fallen and become gradually converted into peat in course of time. There are three successive periods of vegetation in these peat-beds, the upper one of beech, the middle one of oak, and the lowest of all, one of fir. These changes in the vegetation are attributed to slow changes in the climate and it is ascertained from implements and remains found in these beds, that the Stone age corresponds mainly with that of Fir and partly with that of Oak, while the Bronze age agrees mainly with the period of Oak, and the Iron with that of Beech. It has been calculated that about 16,000 years will be requ- ired for the formation of these peat-mosses, and according to this estimate we shall have to place the commencement of the Neolithic age in Denmark, at the lowest, not later than 10,000 years ago.

PREHISTORIC TIMES. 13 But these estimates are not better than mere approximations, and generally speaking we may take the Neolithic age in Europe as commencing not later than 5000 B. C. But when we pass from the Neolithic to the Palæolithic period the difficulty of ascertaining the commencement of the latter becomes still greater. In fact we have here to ascertain the time when the Post-Glacial period commenced. The Palæolithic man must have occupied parts of Western Europe shortly after the disappearance of the Ice Age and Prof. Geikie considers that there are reasons for supposing that he was inter- glacial. The Glacial period was characterised by geographical and climatic changes on an extensive scale. These changes and the theories regarding the cause or the causes of the Ice Age will be briefly stated in the next chapter. We are here concerned with the date of the commencement of the Post-Glacial period, and there are two different views entertained by geologists on the subject. European geologists think that as the beginning of the Post-Glacial period was marked with great movements of eleva- tion and depression of land, and as these movements take place very slowly, the commencement of the Post-Glacial period cannot be placed later than 50 or 60 thousand years ago. Many American geologists, on the other hand, are of opinion that the close of the last Glacial period must have taken place at a much more recent date. They draw this inference from the various estimates of time required for the erosion of valleys and accumulation of alluvial deposits since the last Glacial period. Thus according to Gilbert, the post-glacial gore of Niagara at the present rate of erosion must have been excavated within 7000 years ¹. Other American geologists from similar observations at various other places have arrived at the conclusion that not more than about 8000 years have

1. See Geikie's Fragments of Earth Lore, p. 286; also Dr. Bonney's. Story of our Planet, p. 560.

14 . THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. elapsed since the close of the last Glacial period. This estimate agrees very well with the approximate date of the Neolithic period ascertained from the amount of silt in some of the lakes in Switzerland. But it differs materially from the estimate of the European geologists. It is difficult to decide, in the present state of our knowledge, which of these estimates is correct. Probably the Glacial and the Post-Glacial period may not, owing to local causes, have commenced or ended at one and the same time in different places, just as the ages of Stone and Bronze were not synchronous in different countries. Prof. Geikie does not accept the American estimate on the ground that it is inconsistent with the high antiquity of the Egyptian civilisation, as ascertained by recent researches. But if no traces of glaciation are yet found in Africa this objection loses its force, while the arguments by which the American view is supported remain uncontradicted. There are other reasons which go to support the same view. All the evidence regarding the existence of the Glacial period comes form the North of Europe and America; but no traces of glaciation have been yet discovered in the Northern Asia or North Alaska. It is not to be supposed, however, that the northern part of Asia did not enjoy a genial climate in early times. As observed by Prof. Geikie "everywhere throughout this vast region alluvial deposits are found packed up with the remains of mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, bison, and horse;" and "the fossils are usually so well preserved that on one occasion the actual carcass of a mammoth was exposed in so fresh a state that dogs ate the flesh thereof." * These and other equally indisputable facts clearly indicate the existence in Siberia of a mild and genial climate at a time, which, from the freshness of the fossil remains, cannot be supposed to be removed from the present by several *. See Geikie's Great Ice Age, 1st Ed., p. 495; Dr. Croll's Climate and Cosmology, p. 179.