द ब्यूटीफुल ट्री: १८वीं सदी में भारत की स्वदेशी गुरुकुल शिक्षा (धर्मपाल)

69. See origins of the School of Oriental Studies, London Institution, by P.J. Hartog, C.I.E., M.A., 1917.
70. A graphic image of the more privileged products of this British initiated education was given by Ananda K Coomaraswamy as early as
71. Coomaraswamy then wrote: ‘Speak to the ordinary graduate of an Indian University, or a student from Ceylon, of the ideals of the Mahabharata—he will hasten to display his knowledge of Shakespeare; talk to him of religious philosophy—you find that he is an atheist of the crude type common in Europe a generation ago, and that not only has he no religion, but is as lacking in philosophy as the average Englishman; talk to him of Indian music—he will produce a gramophone or a harmonium and inflict upon you one or both; talk to him of Indian dress or jewellery—he will tell you that they are uncivilised and barbaric; talk to him of Indian art—it is news to him that such a thing exists; ask him to translate for you a letter written in his own mother-tongue—he does not know it. He is indeed a stranger in his own land.’ (Modern Review, Calcutta, vol 4, Oct. 1908 p.338).
72. January 1932, pp.151-82.
73. Also in House of Commons Papers: 1831-32, vol. 9, p.468.
74. Clarendon Press, 1917, p.394.
75. In Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1917, pp.815-25.
76. Philip Hartog’s lectures were announced in the London Times, (March 1,4,6,1935) and two of them reported in it on March 2 and 5. On 2 March the Times reported that Sir Philip Hartog, ‘submitted that under successive Governor Generals, from Warren Hastings to Lord Chelmsford, an educational policy was evolved as part of a general policy to govern India in the interest of India, and to develop her intellectual resources to the utmost for her own benefit.’ It is interesting, however, to note that the Times, while it gave fairly constant though brief notices to Gandhiji’s 1931 visit to England, and some of the public meetings he addressed and the celebration of his birthday, the meeting at Chatham House did not reach its pages. It was not only not reported the next day, October 21, 1931, but was also not announced along with various other notices of various other meetings, etc., on the morning of October 20. Possibly it was a convention not to report any meetings at Chatham House in newspapers.
77. The Book of Lectures was reviewed in the Times Literary Supplement under the caption ‘Mr Gandhi Refuted’. Complimenting Hartog, the review stated: ‘There are many deserved criticisms of past British administrators in this particular field, but other charges dissolve into thin air when exposed to the searching analysis Sir Philip Hartog has applied to a statement of Mr Gandhi...Sir Philip took up the challenge at once...he shows how facts were distorted to fit an educational theory.’
78. The text of Hartog-Gandhi correspondence is given at Annexures F (i)-(xxv).
79. The available material on the survey of indigenous education in the Presidency of Bombay has been brought out in a valuable book Survey of Indigenous Education in the Province of Bombay 1820-30 by R.V. Parulekar in 1951. This survey, however, appears to have covered only certain parts of the Bombay Presidency.
80. Judging from their products, in a certain sense, this may apply even more to the writings on India by most non-Indians. Their writings on various aspects of Indian society and polity will obviously be influenced, if not wholly conditioned, by their respective cultural and educational ethos. Even when some of them—Alexander Walker in the early 19th century and Prof. Burton Stein today—appear to understand India 91

better, it is not really for them to map out how Indians should end up perceiving themselves or their own society. Such a task can legitimately only be undertaken by India itself. 80. Public Despatch to Bengal, 3 June 1814: ‘We refer with particular satisfaction upon this occasion to that distinguished feature of internal polity which prevails in some parts of India, and by which the instruction of the people is provided for by a certain charge upon the produce of the soil, and other endowments in favour of the village teachers, who are thereby rendered public servants of the community.’ 81. The revenue records of all areas, especially of the years 1770-90 for the Bengal Presidency, and of 1801-20 for the Madras Presidency provide very extensive information regarding such assignments. The information regarding assignments for the purpose of carrying Ganga water to religious shrines is taken from Mafee Register for 1847 for the district of Hamirpur and Kalpi in the Uttar Pradesh State Archives at Allahabad. 82. I.O.R. Factory Records: G/27/1, Supervisor Houghly to Murshe- dabad Council, 10.10.1770, p.88. 83. In a note dated circa 1830. 84. The total number of maths and temples in Tanjore about this time was around 4,000. 85. I.O.R. Factory Records: G/6/4. Proceedings of Burdwan Council on Beerbhoom, 24.5.1775. 86. The problem of peasants deserting sirkar lands (i.e. lands paying revenue to government) because of the exhorbitant rate of government assessment even in the 1820s was of such frequency that it was deliberated upon by Thomas Munro as Governor of Madras in November 1822. At that time Munro observed that ‘it would be most satisfactory if the sirkar ryots were induced to give a voluntary preference to the sirkar land’ and felt that the rest of the village community paying revenue to government should not ‘allow a ryot to throw up sirkar land liable to adjustment merely that he may occupy Enam land which is liable to none.’ But if such ‘inducement’ did not work Munro was of the view, that ‘if necessary, measures for the protection of the rights of government may be directed more immediately to the Enamdars, either by taking their Enams or by resuming them.’ (Tamil Nadu state Archives: Board of Revenue Proceedings: volume 930, Proceedings 7.11.1822, pp.10292- 96). 87. For fairly detailed information on Malabar, see the voluminous Report of Commissioner Graeme, 16.7.1822 in TNSA: Revenue Consultations, especially volume 277A. 88. Annexure A (xxi), Philip Hartog, who made much play of this reply, as mentioned earlier, used it to throw doubt on the educational data from the other districts. It is possible that because of his contrary concerns, he was not able to comprehend this report fully. 89. Bellary was part of the Ceded Districts and was administered from 1800-7 by Thomas Munro. As mentioned earlier, it was here that Munro seemed outraged by the fact that 35% of the total cultivated land was still being assigned for various local purposes, and expressed his determination to reduce it to as low as 5% of the total revenue of the Ceded Districts. Munro at that time also advocated the imposition of an income-tax of about 15% on all those (revenue assignees, as well as merchants, artisans, labourers and the rest) who did not pay land revenue. The Madras Government accepted his recommendation and this tax, under various names, (Veesabuddy, Mohtarpha, etc.) was imposed 92

not only in the Ceded Districts but also in many other districts of the Madras Presidency. It is this background of exhorbitant taxation and the cutting down of all expenses, even on the repair of irrigation sources that largely led to the conversion of Bellary and Cuddapah into the latter day arid and impoverished areas. Quite naturally, then, the educational returns from Bellary were low. 90. Hansard: June 22, 1813. 91. Minute on Indian Education: March 1835. 92. J.S. Mill, History of British India, 1817, vol. I, pp.344, 351-2, 466-7, 472, 646. 93. Ibid, p.428. 94. Revenue Despatch to Madras: 11.2.1801. 93

DOCUMENTS 87

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Annexure A I MINUTE OF GOVERNOR SIR THOMAS MUNRO ORDERING THE COLLECTION OF DETAILED INFORMATION ON INDIGENOUS EDUCATION: 25.6.1822* (TNSA: Revenue Consultations: Vol.920: dated 2.7.1822)

1. Much has been written both in England and in this country about the ignorance of the people of India and the means of disseminating knowledge among them. But the opinions upon this subject are the mere conjectures of individuals unsupported by any authentic documents and differing so widely from each other as to be entitled to very little attention. Our power in this country and the nature of its own municipal institutions have certainly rendered it practicable to collect material from which a judgment might be formed of the state of the mental cultivation of the people. We have made geographical and agricultural surveys of our provinces. We have investigated their resources and endeavoured to ascertain their population, but little or nothing has been done to learn the state of education. We have no record to show the actual state of education throughout the country. Partial inquiries have been made by individuals, but those have taken place at distant periods—and on a small scale and no inference can be drawn from them with regard to the country in general. There may be some difficulty in obtaining such a record as we want. Some Districts will not—but others probably will furnish it—and if we get it only from two or three it will answer in some degree for all the rest. It cannot be expected to be very accurate, but it will at least enable us to form an estimate of the state of instructions among the people. The only record which can furnish the information required is a list of the schools in which reading and writing are taught in 89

each district showing the number of scholars in each and the caste to which they belong. The Collectors should be directed to prepare this document according to the form which accompanies this paper. They should be desired to state the names of the book generally read at the schools. The time which scholars usually continue, at such schools. The monthly or yearly charge to the scholars and whether any of the schools are endowed by the public and if so the nature and amount of the fund. When there are colleges or other institutions for teaching Theology, Law, Astronomy, etc. an account should be given of them. These sciences are usually taught privately without fee or reward by individuals to a few scholars or disciples, but there are also some instances in which the native governments have granted allowances in money and land for the maintenance of the teachers. 2. In some districts, reading and writing are confined almost entirely to Bramins and the mercantile class. In some they extend to other classes and are pretty general among the Patails of villages and principal Royets. To the women of Bramins and of Hindoos in general they are unknown because the knowledge of them is prohibited and regarded as unbecoming of the modesty of the sex and fit only for public dancers. But among the women of the Rujbundah and some other tribes of Hindoos who seem to have no prejudice of this kind, they are generally taught. The prohibition against women learning to read is probably from various causes, much less attended to in some districts than in others and as it is possible that in every district a few females may be found in the reading schools, a column has been entered for them in the Form proposed to be sent to the Collector. The mixed and impure castes seldom learn to read, but as a few of them do, columns are left for them in the Form. 3. It is not my intention to recommend any interface whatever in the native schools. Everything of this kind ought to be carefully avoided, and the people should be left to manage their schools in their own way. All that we ought to do is to facilitate the operations of these schools by restoring any funds that may have been diverted from them and perhaps granting additional ones, where it may appear advisable. But on this point we shall be better able to judge when we receive the information now proposed to be called for. 25th June 1822. (Signed) Thomas Munro 90

II Ordered in consequence that the following letter be despatched: No.459 Revenue Department To, The President and Members of the Board of Revenue Gentlemen, I am directed to state that it is considered by the Honourable the Governor-in-Council to be an object of interest and of importance to obtain as accurate information as may be procurable with regard to the actual state of education throughout the country, and to desire that the several Collectors may be required to furnish such information according to the accompanying Form. Besides reporting the number of schools in which reading and writing are taught, the number of scholars in each and the castes to which they belong, the Collectors should state the time which scholars usually continue at school, the monthly or yearly charge to the scholars, whether any of the schools are endowed by the public and in such cases the nature and amount of the fund. When there are colleges or other institutions for teaching Theology, Law, Astronomy, etc., an account of them should be given. These sciences are usually taught privately to a few scholars or disciples by individuals without any fee or reward, but there are also some instances in which the native government has granted allowances in money and land for the maintenance of the teachers. Although generally education is confined to particular castes and is not extended to females, yet as there are exceptions, which in certain districts may be numerous, the accompanying Form is adopted to include them. It is to be clearly understood by the Collectors that no interference whatever with the native school is intended. Everything of that kind should be carefully avoided and the people should be left to manage their schools in their own way. All that ought to be done is to facilitate the operation of the schools, by restoring any funds that may have been diverted from them and perhaps granting additional funds where it may appear advisable. Fort St. George, D. Hill, 2nd July 1822. Secretary to Government 91

III CIRCULAR—FORT ST. GEORGE—25TH JULY 1822 (TNSA: BRP—Vol.920, Pro. 25.7.1822, pp.6971-72 No.7)

1. I am directed by the Board of Revenue to transmit to you the accompanying copy of a letter with its enclosure from the Secretary to Government in the Revenue Department, and to desire that you will submit the required information together with a statement in the prescribed Form at your earliest convenience.
2. In calling for the information from the different parts of your Collectorate, you will cause your public servants clearly to understand, and to make known to the people that no interference with the schools is intended, though every assistance will be given to facilitate their operations and to restore any funds which may appear to have been diverted from their original purposes. Fort St. George, R. Clarke, 25th July 1822. Secretary (Statement on following page) 92

93

IV PRINCIPAL COLLECTOR, CANARA TO BOARD OF REVENUE: 27.8.1822 (TNSA: BRP: Vol.924 Pro.5.9.1822, pp.8425-29 Nos.35-6)

1. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated 25th ultimo, together with its enclosure being copy of letter from the Secretary to Government Revenue Department dated 2nd July directing me to forward a statement filled up as per Form transmitted, and to report upon the state of education in this zillah. As the preparation of the necessary information to fill up the statement in question, would take up a considerable time and as any just criterion of the actual extent of such schools as exist in this zillah cannot be formed upon it, I have considered it expedient to submit this address, explanatory of the foregoing causes, which will I think show the preparation of the document for this Province unnecessary.
2. There are no colleges in Canara for the cultivation of the abstruse Sciences. Neither are there any fixed schools and masters to teach in them. There is no instance known of any institutions of the above description having ever received support in any shape from the former governments.
3. The education of the few Bramin children of the higher classes in towns or villages, is conducted in the house of the principal man. He selects a teacher, who receives for each child a small sum, a present of cloth at particular ceremonies, and the same for a few others, children of the friends of the principal man, who also meet at his own house for the same purpose. The Moolla* in the same manner teaches a few Mussulman children on the same principle. It is entirely a private education, and the master is as often changed as the scholars. There is nothing belonging to it which can assimilate it with a shadow of public education, or indeed of regularity in learning. The children are taught to read and write and accounts, and unless belonging to the highest classes, the attainment of 94

Persian and Hindwy and Canarese at the same time is seldom or ever pursued. Indeed, amongst those classes, it is so entirely a private tuition, that any estimate of the numbers of their child- ren learning such languages could not be but erroneous. 4. Education is undoubtedly at its lowest ebb in Canara. To the Bramins of the country the Conkanny and Shinnawee and to the 2nd class of the former, the little education given, is confined. Amongst the farmers, generally speaking, and probably amongst one half of its population, the most common forms of education are unknown and in disuse, or more correctly speaking were never in use. 5. As applicable to the subject I beg leave to introduce an extract from a letter to the assistant surgeon of the zillah, written to him in consequence of a wish on the part of the Superintendent General of Vaccination to obtain information from me, on the practicability of inducing the upper classes of natives in Canara, to undertake the situations of practitioners, who from their supposed superior attainments would be enabled to facilitate the progress of vaccination. Extract of Paras 6th, 7th and 8th 6. I have stated that I consider there is no objection to the Christian practitioner, but with regard to employment of men of the other various castes in this district, causes exist which I am led to believe would render the attempt futile. The mass of people are cultivators, there are no manufactures to speak of in Canara, it is a country of cottages dispersed in valleys and jungles, each man living upon his estate and hence there are few towns, even these are thinly populated. Hence I am led to conjecture from a lesser congregation of people the Arts and Sciences have never, at least in later times, become of that consequence in Canara to cause them to be taught and cherished. Probably there is no District in the Peninsula so devoid of artists or scientific men. 7. The soil of Canara is the natives undoubted right, gained by the first of all claims, the original clearing of it for cultivation. Thus, to this day his detestation of quitting his house and the fields by which it is surrounded. For those wants to which he is thus naturally exposed for cloth and for the various necessities of life which his land does not yield him, he is indebted to the few bazar men in the very 95

few towns in each talook; these men chiefly Concanese are again indebted to their more opulent brethren established on the coast for supplies which are bartered for the products of the soil. These again are confined to three or four principal articles so that they do not afford room for much individual foreign enterprise, and consequently the provision of them remains with the people, who, have ever retained it, and thus strangers are in a great degree excluded from the country. 8. From these causes I certainly consider the general want of Men of Science originates, and also that men, where their occupation is so entirely taken up with one pursuit would not be induced to quit it on any account, much less for the occupation of a travelling vaccinator. 6. Subsequently to my arrival in Canara, I had endeavored to persuade some of the original farmers, the Bunts, to send their nephews (for they are the heirs, not the sons) to Mangalore for education—without success. A Christian school has been established in which Latin and Portuguese alone are taught. 7. Should the Board after this explanation still consider the preparation of the Form transmitted with their letter, desirable, and according to the views of the government, I shall endeavor to obtain the particulars. It will be, I beg to repeat, a very fallacious statement. Amongst the numerous servants of this extensive Collectorate there is but one, who writes Persian; the literary knowledge of all others is confined to Hindwy and Canarese. Even Sanscrit is very partially known, and the Ballabund is confined to a very few of the class of Bramins who read the Shastras. Amongst this latter class I have found many, who could not read some of the ancient inscriptions, which they assert are in a different character from the Hala Canarese, and Ballabund they were taught. Mangalore, Principal Collector’s Cutcherry, 27th August, 1822. (Order thereon)—35-36 T. Harris, Ordered to lie on the table: Principal Collector. 96

V COLLECTOR OF TINNEVELLY TO BOARD OF REVENUE: 18.10.1822 (TNSA: BRP: Vol.928 Pro.28.10.1822 pp.9936-7 No.46-7) I have the honor of forwarding the Statement of Schools in this District required by your Deputy's letter of the 25th July last. The preparation of the account has been delayed by enquiry into the castes of the female scholars, who in almost all instances are found to be dancing girls. Tinnevelly District, Sharenmadavy, J.B. Hudleston 18th October 1822. Collector. (Statement on following page) 97

98

VI ASSISTANT COLLECTOR, SERINGAPATAM TO BOARD OF REVENUE: 29.10.1822 (TNSA: BRP: Vol.929 Pro.4.11.1822 pp.10260-2 Nos.33&4)

1. I have the honor to transmit in conformity to the instructions conveyed in your letter of the 25th July last, a statement exhibiting the number of seminaries within this zillah.
2. The extent of information acquired under the present prevailing system of education is extremely limited—nothing more is professed to be taught in these day-schools than reading, writing, and arithmetic, just competent for the discharge of the common daily transactions of society.
3. There are no traces on record, as far as I can ascertain, of endowments in land towards the support of colleges and schools having at a former period been granted either by the then existing government or any patriotic private individuals. The superintendents of the different seminaries were left for remuneration, entirely to the parents of the respective students frequenting them, and which system obtains to the present day.
4. It appears that for each pupil the preceptor receives 5 annas monthly which makes the total annual expenditure for the purposes of education within the Island of Seringapatam amount to rupees 2,351 and annas 4. This sum, divided amongst 41 superintendents, gives each on an average the very inadequate and trifling income of rupees 57 annas 5 and pice 5. Seringapatam H. Vibart 29th October 1822. Assistant Collector in charge. (Statement on following page) 99

100

VII COLLECTOR, TINNEVELLY TO BOARD OF REVENUE: 7.11.1822 (TNSA: BRP Vol.931, Pro.18.11.1822 No.37, pp. 10545-6) I have now the honor of forwarding a complete account of schools in this district according to the prescribed Form. The accounts from the talook of Punjamahl not having been received at the time of my sending those of the other talooks. The total under the head of population appears to have been erroneous, and is correctly given in the statement, now sent: Tinnevelly, J.B. Hudleston, 7th November 1822. Collector. (Statement on following page) 101

102

VIII PRINCIPAL COLLECTOR, COIMBATORE TO BOARD OF REVENUE: 23.11.1822 (TNSA: BRP: Vol.932, Pro.2.12.1822, pp.10939-943, No.43) To, The President and Members of the Board of Revenue Gentlemen,

1. I have the honor to forward the information called for in Mr Clarke’s letter of the 25th July 1882 regarding the schools in the district.
2. The statement No.1 is drawn up after the Form which accompanied Mr Clarke’s letter. The statement No.2 shows the particular language taught in each school, the number of pupils, the average amount of stipends paid by parents, to the teachers, the average annual charge to pupils for the purchase of cadjans. The statement No.3 shows the number of institutions in which Theology, Law and Astronomy are taught, the number of pupils educated in them, and the amount of maximum land granted by the Hindu Government, for their support, and assumed either by the Mussulman, or by the British Government.
3. The earliest age at which boys attend school is 5 years, they continue there until they are 13 or 14. Those who study Theology, Law, etc., begin at about 15 and continue to frequent the colleges until they have attained a competent knowledge in the Science, or until they obtain employment.
4. Besides their regular stipends, school masters generally receive presents, from the parents of their pupils, at the Das- sarah and other great feasts; a fee is also given when the pupil begins a new book. The annual stipend from one pupil varies from Rs.14 to Rs.3 per annum, according to the circumstances of the parents. The school hours are from 6 a.m. to 10, and from 1 to 2 p.m. until 8 at night. Besides the several festivals they have regular holidays, 4 days in each month on the full moon, the new moon, and a day after each. 103