CONTENTS Foreword (by Member Secretary) vii Introduction ix Acknowledgements xxx Scheme of Transliteration xxxi Abbreviations xxxii TEXT AND TRANSLATION 1–219 Chapter I Miśrakādhyāyaḥ 1–59 Chapter II Āyādhikāraḥ 60–79 Chapter III Durgādilakṣaṇam 80–99 Chapter IV Gṛhādiniveśaḥ 100–129 Chapter V Gṛhavinyāsaḥ lakṣaṇasamuccayaḥ 130–137 Chapter VI Śālādi gṛhalakṣaṇam 138–165 Chapter VII Dūṣaṇabhūṣaṇāni 166–187 Chapter VIII Prakīrṇakādhyāyaḥ 188–213 APPENDICES 215–222 I– Names of the Plants mentioned in Vāstumaṇḍana 215–219 II– Names of the Planets mentioned in Vāstumaṇḍana 220 III– Effect of Moon in Each Zodiac Sign 221 IV– Stars Mentioned in Vāstumaṇḍana 222 CHARTS 223–227 – Śalyoddhāraḥ 223 – Marmavāstuḥ 224 – Plan of an ordinary House 225 – Plan of King's Palace (along with list of pāda) 226–227

vi Vāstumaṇḍana PLATES 229–232 – Prākāraka Ch. 3, (VM) 229 – A Panoramic view of Kumbhalgarh Fort 230 – Kumbhalgarh Fort and Wall 231 – Ambarāgāra Ch. 5, Verse 4, (VM) 232 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 233–238 INDEX GLOSSARY 239–256

FOREWORD The Kalāmūlaśāstra series of Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) is aimed at bringing to light the primary textual source material hitherto unknown, unpublished or inaccessible both in original language as also in translation. Under the aegis of this ongoing and long term research programme, the publication of the fundamental texts of Indian arts is undertaken along with annotations and translations. The critical edition of each text is prepared on the basis of several manuscripts, those being collated, transcribed, etc. along with the commentary of the source material, if any. So far in this series, along with other works on different aspects of Indian arts, three seminal works on Indian architecture have been brought to light, namely, Mayamatam (edited and translated by Bruno Dagens), Śilparatnakośa of Śthāpaka Nirañjana Mahāpātra (edited and translated by Bettina Baumer and Rajendra Prasad Dash) and Śilpa Prakāśa of Rāmacandra Mahāpātra Kaula Bhaṭṭāraka (edited and translated by Bettina Baumer, Rajendra Prasad Das and Sadanana Das). The present volume titled the Vāstumaṇḍana of Sūtradhāra Maṇḍana is another value addition and it is a matter of immense pleasure for us at IGNCA to publish this significant work on medieval Indian architecture from western India under the Kalāmūlaśāstra series. Sūtradhāra Maṇḍana is believed to be the chief architect of Mahārāṇa of Kumbhalgarh and his fundamental writings were used as manuals by the practicing architects. Thus the Vāstumaṇḍana is a critical landmark in the development of Indian architecture. Dr. (Smt.) Anasuya Bhowmick is a noted modern scholar and is an authority in the field of Indian architecture. She has painstakingly prepared the critical edition by surveying all the available manuscript material and has given a suitable English translation to it. She has also given various indices, charts and illustrations to make the concepts embedded in the text more intelligible to readers. The edition paves the way for a better comprehension of Indian architecture. This publication is another example of Dr. (Smt.) Anasuya Bhowmick's scholarly contribution to the field of Indian architecture in particular and to Indian Arts in general. Dr. Sudhir Lall of the Kalākośa division is the managing editor of this volume, who contributed tirelessly, in bringing the output submitted by Dr. (Smt.) Bhowmick to the stage of publication.

viii Vāstumaṇḍana We fervently hope that the academic fraternity will welcome this significant contribution by IGNCA and will benefit from it. The IGNCA looks forward to receiving feedback from the readers of this publication. We would appreciate your suggestions or comments for incorporation in the future editions of Vāstumaṇḍana. Dr. Sachchidanand Joshi October, 2016 Member-Secretary, IGNCA

INTRODUCTION

In The Indian Encyclopedia, architecture has been depicted as the rudimentary art of India and almost all other forms of art have emerged as accessories to it. We find similar tune in the article written by K.R. Pisharoti, who writes, ‘Architecture is one of the most important forms in which the Indian culture has found expression from ancient times.’ The New Encyclopedia Britannica explicates architecture along with some other arts, the practice of architecture embraces both aesthetic and utilitarian aspects. In this context Pisharoti says, ‘Architecture is primarily utilitarian, both in conception and in practice, and at the same time it is expected to satisfy aesthetic sense. A structure which has any pretence to architectural quality must satisfy both these aspects of utility and of beauty.’ Architecture has a sprawling history in our country. We find references of various architectural forms specially altars of multifarious shapes and sizes for sacrifices in the Vedic literature. Some of the major Purāṇas like Matsya, Agni, Garuḍa and others, expatiate and explain various aspects of architecture. In the later period we find a number of texts from different regions of India, which deal extensively with different forms of architecture; religious as well as secular. To name a few they are Mānasāra, Mayamata, Viśvakarmā Vāstuśāstra, Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra, Aparājitapṛcchā and so on. The Vāstumaṇḍana, a treatise on architecture of medieval age, shows close acquaintance with the vāstu works from Gujarat. Basically it is a compilation from other vāstu texts, in some places it shows its inherent exclusivity.

MANUSCRIPTS OF THE VĀSTUMAṆḌANA

To prepare the critical text of the Vāstumaṇḍana, five manuscripts have been consulted. These are collected from different parts of India.

Manusript A

The mother one (A) was collected from BORI. Pune. Its record no. is 123. It is written in Devanāgarī script, and complete with 35 folios, each consisting of 12/ 13 lines. The size of this manuscript is 9. 5/9 inches x 41/8 in. The material is country made paper. The date is saṁvat 1675 i.e., 1618 A.D. The manuscript has some peculiarities. The scribe writes ष्, and घ् in stead of थ and ष instead of ख; such as मुष instead of मुख in Ch. 1 verse no 48, 51 and in

x Vāstumaṇḍana many other places. In many places, we find श instead of स such as नाशिका (नासिका), माश (मास) and sometimes स्मशान instead of श्मशान (20.a.ll). The scribe used पृष्ठमात्रा instead of the normal one, such as he writes सुलग्ने च सुभे दिने in the first chapter. Again in the same chapter we find दित्रोन्तशषाटाधनिष्ठो। In the 10ᵗʰ folio we find वोर instead of वौर. He has the tendency of interchanging the syllables, e.g., चम्पक instead of पञ्चक (f20bl.2) प्रवि instead of विप्र, (2ⁿᵈ Ch. v 57), स्यते instead of तस्ये (f23bl.6) and so on. In case of रेफ् he writes रेफ् and रफला together. For example दुर्गं for दुर्गे or दुर्गन्धा for दुर्गन्धा (Śl. 74, 2ⁿᵈ Ch.). Some times he writes छ like (31a, 11, b13, 33b, 4.67, etc.). In the colphon and [L12

INTRODUCTION xi Here also we find a few peculiarities of the scribe. He has a tendency of writing same consonants one after another. Such as मानसोल्लास् (lbsl8) or भर्भु instead of भर्तुः (ld3sl3) or ललं instead of तलं (28b.5) and many more. He writes ‘राम’ on each ‘B’ folio and after folio 28ᵗʰ it seems the handwriting has been changed. Here, in the post-colophon entry the scribe writes सुतेन देवसिंहेण प्रार्थितः श्रैनन्दनः / Then he indexed the ślokas with numbers in each chapter and at the end he gives his own short details संवत् 1897 माधवदिगरौश्री उदयपुरत्राधान्या श्रीपुराणा श्रीजगत्सिंह विजयराज्ये भट्टभाइ रामसुतोभट्टनीलकंठोहम लेखि श्रीरामोजयति / It seems the scribe is a devotee of Rāma. In the descriptive catalogue, it is written that extent in ślokas are 900 but actually we find lesser numbers. Manuscript C The third Manuscript (C) is collected form the Oriental Institute, M.S. University of Baroda. Its accession no. is 5317. This is a complete manuscript with 49 folia, but 8 folia are missing in between. These are 1, 2, 7, 10, 28, 29, 32,43 folio. The lines per folio are inconsistent. There are 8, 9, 10 or 11 lines in different folia. Script is nāgarī and the date is saṁvat 1811, i.e., 1754 A.D. The name of the scribe is not mentioned in the post colophon. Only the date of copying is given as follows:- सम्बत् १८११ मितिमाघवदि २ मंगलवारसरायां लिपिकृतम् // Manuscripts D and E The fourth (D) and fifth (E) were collected from Saraswati Bhawan, Benaras (Record No. 33876 and 4330). Manuscripts D is incomplete in 18 folios, and the numbers of lines vary from 15 to 19. The script is Nāgarī and the date is not mentioned – size is 12.8 x 6.3 inches. Manuscript E is complete in 25 folios. Numbers of lines are different in different folios varying from 11 to 13 lines. Script is Nāgarī and the size is 13.2 x 4 inches. In this manuscript, we find some marginal notes and a few graphs. It seems that the scribe was proficient in jyotiṣa, so wherever he felt, he did some graph or calculation and made a few comments on the border. In the beginning he writes :- ग्राम नाम अधिष्ठाता कर नक्षत्रमध्यदैकर लिखव/ शुक्रेचन्द्रे जलाधारौ देवता वसते गुरौ// रवौ चतुष्पदस्थानम् मेडिका निश्चयावधः/ भौमेऽग्निधकं चैव शनौ राहौ क्षयंकरः //१//

xii Vāstumaṇḍana Date is 1890 saṁvat, 1755 śaka, i.e., 1833 A.D. In the post-colophon it is written: ग्रंथसंख्या ८८०/ सम्वत् १८९० शके १७५५ फाल्गुनशुक्ल ३ वृहस्पतौ / श्रीरामो He also writes श्रीराम on each folio. For nasal consonants – ङ्, ञ्, ण्, न, म all the scribes write. This is in short the description of five manuscripts used in editing the Vāstumaṇḍana. MAṆḌANA SŪTRADHĀRA AND HIS DATE In the 15ᵗʰ century, a brief but glorious period existed for the late medieval style of western Indian Architecture. The prevailing environment provided Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra with the opportunity of evincing his flair, potency, conceptual acuity and functional brilliance on architecture as well as on sculpture. Maṇḍana, who was endowed with scholastic erudition, enjoyed the royal patronage of Rāṇā Kumbhā of Chitor in whose court flourished several men of literary prowess. This royal architect wrote and compiled a number of treatises on architecture and iconography. Being an author of that period, he had an exposure to the previous authoritative Vāstuśāstras and the Purāṇas from which he elicited his inspiration. Maṇḍana's father Kṣetra was also an architect. In the concluding śloka of Vāstumaṇḍana, he writes – सुतेन दैवसिंहेन प्रार्थितः क्षेत्रमण्डनः स्थपतिः सृजति स्मेदं मण्डनो वास्तुमण्डनम् There has been lot of confusion regarding his origin. According to one tradition Maṇḍana hails from Gujarat and was invited by Mahārāṇā Kumbha in his court to compose treatise on Vāstuśāstras. According to other tradition and a few colophons of Maṇḍana's works – Kṣetra and his son Maṇḍana belonged to proper Mewar but their forefather hailed from Gujarat. Whatever the origin may be, Maṇḍana's work evidently show close acquaintance with the vāstu works from Gujarat. In this book, i.e., the Vāstumaṇḍana he followed the technology of Aparājitapṛchhā and Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra to a great extent. In his works Rūpamaṇḍana and Rājavallabhamaṇḍana Maṇḍana specifically mentions that, he is the eldest son of the eminent architect Kṣetra.

? Wait, what is between ज्येष्ठोandडनस्तस्य? Let's zoom into maximum resolution: - पु -त्रो - (space) -ज्ये -ष्ठो - Next glyph: It is anओ? Or is it ऽfollowed by something? Wait! Look at the glyph immediately afterष्ठो: It is ओ! Wait, no: it has a 3-like left side, a vertical bar, and a matra on top? No, it looks like ओorअ! Wait, look at ओinपुत्रो: त्र+ो. Look at independent ओ: ओ. Wait, look at ऽinक्षेत्राख्योऽयुत: it has no vertical bar. The glyph after ज्येष्ठो: Wait! Look at ज्येष्ठो: ज्ये(jye) ष्ठो(ṣṭho) Then:ऽ? Wait, is it ज्येष्ठोऽ? Wait, look at: ज्येष्ठोhasो. Then there is a character that looks like अorओ? Wait, no, it's ऽ`? Wait, look at

xiv Vāstumaṇḍana HIS WORKS 'At least 8 works of Maṇḍana are well reputed. These are by name Prāsāda Maṇḍana, Vāstumaṇḍana, Vāsturājavallabha, Vāstuśāstra, Vāstusāra, Rūpamaṇḍana, Rūpāvatāra and Devatāmūrtiprakaraṇa. The exact date of none of these works is so far known, but a relative chronological position of a few can be ascertained by a comparative appraisal. The Vāsturājavallabha for instance, seems a recast and an abridged one, of the Vāstumaṇḍana; the Vāstusāra is just a summary of either Vāsturājavallabha or the Vāstumaṇḍana' writes M.A. Dhaky in his article, The Vāstuśāstras of Western India. Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra was a connoisseur in architecture as well as in sculpture. He was said to have had been entrusted with the assignment of designing and building the fort of Kumbhalgarh. In Vāstumaṇḍana, we find references of similar forts. In the unique library of Kavindracarya (17ᵗʰ century AD.) some manuscripts on architecture were stored. Among them we find

1. Rājavallabhamaṇḍana (2146)
2. Vāstumaṇḍana (2849)
3. Prāsādamaṇḍana (2150)
4. Rūpamaṇḍana (2151), etc. (GOS No XVII, 1921). The Rājavallabhamaṇḍana and some other texts of Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra fetched tremendous popularity within two centuries. Copies of his work reached Benaras the unanimously revered nerve centre of Indian culture. From Benaras, Maṇḍana's works probably promulgated to other places. His works are now available in Kashmir as well as in Madras, in Baroda and in West Bengal. He must have been looked upon as an authority on this subject in his period. It is evident that his handbooks on architecture and sculpture earned unstinted popularity with artists and craftsmen of the time. Out of his works many have been published and are available, but these books are not critically edited. From his writings it seems that the author is well-versed in a variety of subjects, e.g., principles of architecture, town planning, location of different buildings, tanks etc. environmental science, soil technology, astrology, rituals connected with the starting of the construction, etc. He was not only endowed with unprecedented expertise over the science of architecture and allied branches of learning but also had unplumbed poetic talent. However, his Sanskrit was rather abstruse and esoteric. It appears that sometimes he has jumbled up local terms with Sanskrit language. Since many words are not found in any lexicon of the time hence it is very difficult to execute translation. Words like Sandhipāla, Priyamukha, Viṁśopa, Puradvīpa, Kuḍyadvāra, Gavāṅgāyadi kaṇapāli (p. 47). Jādyakumbha (p. 87), Dhiṅkuli (Ch. 3) are not traceable in the lexicons.

INTRODUCTION xv Sometimes the descriptions are not vivid, and legible, some verses in between the lines are missing also. This book appears to be a compilation from other Vāstuśāstra books especially from Aparājitapṛcchā and Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra, but it has its own ingenuity in some chapters. Specially in the third chapter the portrayal of different types of yantras, is unique, though the picture is not legible in some places. The topic is not available in other recognized Vāstusastras. Again, in the description of gavākṣa, siṁhāsana, śivikā, he leaves marks of his originality. Descriptions of śāla houses are extremely analytical, elaborate and praiseworthy from which one can learn about his stupendous expertise over this technical aspect of architecture. CONTENTS Vāstumaṇḍana is a treatise on architecture of 15ᵗʰ century A.D. epitomizing secular architecture of that period. This book primarily reflects the architectural pattern and its technology prevalent in Rajasthan, by which the date and time can be easily ascertained. The author was the chief architect of the ruler Rāṇā Kumbhā, whose history is known from other literary sources. The very name Vāstumaṇḍana suggests either a treatise written by Śrī Maṇḍana or a sheer ornamentation of Vāstu. If this book is compared with other Vāstu texts like Aparājitapṛcchā, Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra, Mayamata and Mānasāra, it is found to be different from all of these. At first glance, this book seems to be a compilation from other Vāstu texts specially Aparājitapṛcchā and Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra. But deeper readings reveal its uniqueness and speciality. The book mentions few other Vāstu texts, Purāṇas and names of few authors of similar texts. These are Mānasollāsa, Sārasāgara, Mātsyapurāṇa, and Maya, Bhoja, Viśvakarmā, Varāha, etc. Unlike other Vāstu texts, this book contains only about 880 ślokas, divided into 8 chapters. Among these chapters, the first one Miśrakādhyāya embraces highest number of ślokas (207) and the fifth chapter Gṛhavinyāsa adhyāya is having only 32 ślokas. This book may be referred best as a guidebook or a handbook for an architect. The book must have been very popular in its period as manuscripts of it are found almost all over India. Rājavallabhamaṇḍana another treatise of the same author seemed to be very popular also, as large number of manuscripts of it could also be located. Few similar verses in both the books could be noticed, but Vāstumaṇḍana deals with each topic more elaborately. For example, in Rājavallabhamaṇḍana twenty- three ślokas describe one particular topic āyādi ṣaḍvarga, whereas in Vāstumaṇḍana eighty-five ślokas are written to describe the same topic. Although Rājavallabhamaṇḍana contains more chapters (14), yet the number of ślokas is found to be more in Vāstumaṇḍana.

xvi Vāstumaṇḍana Uniqueness of this book lies in a particular field; that is, on the fort architecture. This is probably the only book where the description of a fort, the remains of which still exist near Udaipur, could be located. This book gives original blueprint of the planning of that particular fort. It is traced from other references that Maṇḍana himself, during the rule of Rāṇā Kumbhā, built this fort. The remains of the boundary wall of the fort, even today, look like that of the great China wall. Vāstumaṇḍana provides the detailed description of the fort as well as those of palace and its inside. BASIC TOPICS Topics of the book can be divided into four main groups;

1. Astrology, astronomy, and ecology.
2. Fort and palace architecture.
3. Building architecture – śālā houses, etc.
4. Different components of the house. CHAPTERS ON ASTROLOGY, ASTRONOMY & ECOLOGY Vāstumaṇḍana clearly indicates ardent passion of Rāṇā Kumbhā towards astronomy and astrology. In his time, astrologers were hired to execute activities and works within the ambit of the entire kingdom. Astronomy was closely related to astrology and Rāṇā Kumbhā being the astronomer himself, observed intently the movements of the planets based on which important decisions were taken. Every step of construction activities, from the onset to the conclusion was governed by the decisive and instrumental influence of astronomy and astrology. The very first chapter starts with the description of good and evil yogas, position of the stars, solar and lunar zodiacs, etc. All these were incisively scrutinized at the outset of any new construction. In all sorts of construction the book categorically mentions of the lagna, tithi, vāra, auspicious for the owner as well as that of the influence of lunar zodiacs. With the help of astrology or owner's zodiac sign, the author tried to determine the direction of one's house plan. According to him a person having zodiac signs of pisces, scorpio or leo shall have his house facing toward East and so on (Ch 1. Śl 41–42). In this connection the book The Royal Palaces of India, may be referred which says the plan of Jaipur was based on a maṇḍala with the royal residence in the middle. Its rectangular grid plan is tilted at an angle of 12 degree East to North to coincide with Leo, the astrological sign of Kacchwaha dynasty. Thus it is distinctly evident that Vidyādhara Bhaṭṭācārya, the planner of Jaipur city kept in mind the verdict of Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra and acted accordingly.

INTRODUCTION xvii Consideration of omen was considered to be another important aspect for construction activities. These are known as śakunalakṣaṇam and with their help one could determine the auspiciousness of the place. Direction is another important part for designing any type of building plan. For this reason, the author took the help of the pole star and the gnomon to determine proper direction. On a sunny day with the help of a gnomon one used to find out east-west direction, and at night with the help of pole star one used to find north-south direction. The author mentioned of specific timing for the purpose of deciding on the direction. When the sun is in tulā or meṣa and in between citrā and svāti nakṣatra then it is the right time to determine the direction. To find out śalya in a land, the author took help of astronomical chart. A chart having 28 chambers with 28 nakṣatras, is divided between solar and lunar system. Knowing the position of the sun, moon and the stars, one could determine the presence of śalya in a land and rectify. The second chapter deals with a specific formula known as āyādi ṣaḍvarga. The Āyādi is a cluster of six elements – āya, vyaya, rṁśa, ṛkṣa, yoni, vāra-tithi. The conformity to the perimeter of structure has been nicely covered in this formula. There are six basic components of a building comprising adhisthāna (base), pada or stambha (column), prastara (entablature), karṇa (ear, wings) śikhara (roof) and stupa (dome). The āya represents the group of eight elements beginning with dhvaja, dhuma, siṁha, śva, vṛṣa, khara, kuñjara and dhāṁkṣa. According to Stella Kramrisch these are eight Vāstupuruṣas placed in the eight direction of a plot of the land. However this āya formula is slightly different from that of Vāstumaṇḍana. Vyaya represents the group of three parts, i.e., yakṣa, piśāca and rākṣasa. Yakṣa is less than āya, Piśāca is equal to āya and rākṣasa is more than āya. Again vyaya is divided into eight varieties. These are śānta, paura, pradyota, śrīnanda, Manohara, śrīvatsa, vibhava, cintātmaka. Aṁśa are also of three types – Indra, Yama and Nṛpa. Ṛkṣa, (tārā) are distributed in three groups of nine elements each–suragaṇa, rākṣasagaṇa and manuṣyagaṇa. These twenty-seven tārās are known commonly. Whether the orientation of a building is correct or not and whether the measurements as laid down with regard to the different structures are correct and auspicious conforming to the orientation, are all tested by this formula. Yoni constitutes the length and breadth of a structure, particularly that of a house. A proper and auspicious Yoni is therefore required to be chosen for the structure.

xviii Vāstumaṇḍana Stella Kramrisch in her book The Hindu Temple writes, ‘The yoni formula is but one of the six formulae, of the āyādi-ṣaḍvarga, in which the remainder determines the gain or loss which will accrue to the builder, and the nakṣatra (Ṛkṣa), the lunar day (tithi ) and the solar day (vāra), on which it is good to build that particular building. These formulae belong to astrology in general. These are applied to the building as if it is a living entity whose destiny is to be determined. However it is only the cumulative bad effect that makes any perimeter inauspicious even if the Yoni formula is satisfied. (V.K.R. Menon, “Six Canons Of Indian Architecture”, Bulletin of the Sri Rama Varma Research Institute, 1934, pp. 66-67 ). The formulae are not canons. The yoni and the other five formulae are considered when no other definite injunction is given where the temple of a specified divinity has to face, etc (part VII). The power of the specific divinity and its appropriate orientation outweigh the āyadi ṣaḍvarga.’ (Footnote, p. 34 ). Though this is the opinion of Stella Kramrisch, yet almost all Vāstu texts discuss āyādi ṣaḍvarga in details. The author of Vāstumaṇḍana was not only an ardent proponent of this formula but also added on some more to it. These are candra, rāśimaitrī, grahamaitrī, pañcatattva, vargaprīti, vimśopā, etc. After astronomy and astrology the author expressed concern with the surrounding environment of a house also. Plants and trees have significant relation with Vāstu. Almost all Vāstu texts refer to different types of trees and their respective utility in a habitation. The author of Vāstumaṇḍana is no exception. He carefully chose the plants telling where to plant those. In the first chapter, he has enumerated forty-five types of trees and plants, which were to be planted or not to be planted near one's house, their suitability or unsuitability for a new construction. In addition to this, the author suggested the determination of the shading time of a tree and creeper recommending astute discards of those, which provide shades more than three hours. The fourth chapter recommends wood as the material for construction. At first one must appraise the type and nature of the wood, circumvent specific places from where one not to collect wood, selection of the places from where one should derive woods or so. Condition of the wood must also be taken care of. Author mentioned fifty-eight types of trees which are regarded auspicious for human dwelling and forty types of trees which are most apposite – suitable for temples but malicious for human dwellings. Not only the types of trees are important, but their joinery is also equally important too. Here in this book the author categorically mentioned the principles of joinery, which established his peerless expertise in the craft of wooden structure. Two similar parts of a tree should neither be joined together, nor the new and old parts of a tree be joined. Pillars and Brahmasthānas will be free from any joint. Again in the eighth chapter, while giving description of types of beds, he mentioned twenty types of trees, which are best, suited for beds, seats and vehicles.

INTRODUCTION xix CHAPTERS ON FORT AND PALACE ARCHITECTURE Fort occupies a major and very important place in this text. In the middle of 15ᵗʰ century, warfare was regular phenomenon in the western region and a strong secured fort with a palace was inevitable. Rāṇā Kumbhā (1433-68) built numerous forts in his domain the prime one of which was the Kumbhalgarh. From two references, we infer that Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra was the chief architect of Kumbhalgarh. These are: – a) Saṅgītarāja by Rāṇā Kumbhā, which is edited by Premlata Sharma. In the introduction she writes ‘Kumbhalgarh the famous fort of which has the distinction that in all the wars against the enemies of Mewar it remained unconquered (except for once). Its architect was Sūtradhāra Maṇḍana. It is a marvellous feat of military Engineering.’ b) In ‘Some famous Sculptures and Architects of Mewar (15ᵗʰ century A.D.),’ I.H.Q.1957, Vol. xxxiii Sri R.C. Agarwal writes, ‘that whereas contemporary artists like Jaitā and Maṇḍana had attained perfection in the sphere of carrying out stone sculptures and constructing monumental structures like the Kirtistambha at Chittor and the fort at Kumbhalgarh.’ Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra in his book Vāstumaṇḍana gave detailed description of fort and its inside, the palace and its elaborate planning. He described Kumbhalgarh fort as built by him. In the beginning he advises that one must built a strong fort even if he has to demolish the existing structure. Interestingly the fort Kumbhalgarh was built on the location of another old fort. In the Encyclopaedia of India (Rajasthan), pp. 107-8, it is written that Kumbhalgarh was built by Maharana Kumbha in 1448 on a rock plateau and in a site of an earlier ancient fortress. The rampart of the fort is very strong and can be compared with the Great Wall of China. Inside the fort there is a palace, which is self-contained and complete in all respects. The text provides detailed planning of the palace and fort. Original blueprints of the two could be located and in that aspect this book has great documentary importance. Four corners of the fort were specially prescribed for the artisans, wine sellers, hunters etc but those corners were not recommended suitable for others. Brahmins were allocated to reside in the East, Kṣatriyas in the South and Vaiśyas in the North. Water reservoirs were all in the West. The Sun god was placed in the North-East corner, Gaṇādhipa in the South-East, Sahasrākṣa in the South-West, and Janārdana in the North-West. Gods were either facing the East or the west. City inside the fort was complete being adorned with palace, garden, ramparts, main entrance (huge) gates, water reservoirs, gardens, tower of fame, etc. Next the book provides an insufficient description of machineries, which were used to protect the fort. Though the description is not very lucid yet it makes the readers apprised with the name of machineries that were developed in those days.

xx Vāstumaṇḍana It is the only Vāstuśāstra so far, which deals with weapons, a few other books such as Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra or Aparājitapṛchhā mentions merely the names only. Here the author describes eighty-four machineries, out of which nine each are the air and water machineries. There are six varieties of firearms and sixty varieties of war machineries. In this book we get different descriptions of war and fire machineries. Here he enumerates names and measurement of eight types of rods/shafts used in the warfare. Next one is probably the description of a bow, which is not very legible. This bow is named as Markaṭī, which was to be made very firm with the help of leather strips and iron. After this we find a description of Gophanā, which in succinct version is still used to drive away birds in the paddy fields. It appears that this simple device was used to throw stones at the enemy from far distance. In one word it seems to be stone or dart thrower. Subsequently we have noticed the illustration of another machinery known as Markaṭi. Probably it was made of iron nets, looking like a cage or drum and was used to carry stones and arrows. It has few rotating discs, which has made it highly resilient and facilitated easy hassle free movements of that machine. This drum like thing has two supporting rods, a few holes and in the center a place for light etc. We find also the measurement of the cage and the discs. There will be two wings for easy movement. Author gave elaborate description of this item and it seemed that it was an inevitable device in the warfare. This machine is named as Dhinkulī or Gauriyantra. In the seventy-second chapter of Aparājitapṛchhā similar names could be found out. This is the uniqueness of this book that tried to describe the local war machineries. We find fairly a vivid description of firearms, used in the warfare during that period. Small cannons, which were easily moved and carried, were well known to people. There is detailed description and measurement of a cannon, the silhouette of which resembled a Dhatura flower. It was made of brass or bell metal with a pointer to help aiming cardinally the target. The measurement of the weapon is three to six times of a Dhatura flower. It may be noted that the size of a Dhatura flower available in Rajasthan is rather large approximately of 8-10 inches in length. Along with the cannons we find references of cannon balls and the ingredients with which the balls were manufactured. Eighth chapter of this book describes six types of king's palaces. These are Śrīdhara, Śrīnivāsa, Lakṣmīvilāsa, Pṛthvījaya, Pratāpavardhana, and Kṣiṇaibhūṣaṇa compared to Aparājitapṛchhā mentioning twenty types of king's palaces. While describing these palaces the author mentions of six chhandas or characteristics. These are Māḍa, Mauḍa, Śuddha, Śekhara, Tuṅgāra and Simhakarṇa. Previously he mentioned

INTRODUCTION xxi of another chhandas for the aerial view of a construction. These are Meru, Khaṇḍameru, Patākā, Sūci, Neṣṭa and Uddiṣṭta. Mostly palaces are of Māḍa type and they come under Meru chhanda. Another peculiarity of these palaces is that most of the palaces are either three and half or five and half or seven and half storied and the ground plan of these palaces are either 8 x 8, 9 x 9 or 10 x 10 square as required. Śrīdhara type of palace is five storied with sixteen pillars in the centre. The projected part of the palace is two and half storied. While there are four pillars in one part, there are four pillars each for all the four doors with lattice. Platforms were fitted with glittering silver seats adorned with Mattavāraṇa (A.P. Ch. 87, Ś16- 17). Aparājitapṛcchā mentions of three chadyas adorned with platforms and bells, which are the decoration of this palace. The palace Pratāpavardhana has four doors in four directions. There the projected part will be one third of the breadth of the palace and the front portico constitutes another part. No other information on this type of palace are found in the book whereas Aparājitapṛcchā describes the land to be twenty-five hands in measurement with four pillars in the center, twelve more pillars on the alindas, totaling thirty-two pillars in outside and inside. Māḍa type of construction is described to have two stories and above going up to three and half stories. The palace Lakṣmīvilāsa is found to be similar to Pratāpavardhana to certain extent. Vāstumaṇḍana adds that out of ten pillars in the mukhabhadra, six will be inside and four will be on the outside. Māḍa type of construction is done two stories and above on bhadra and for a house it will be upto five and a half storey. This type of palace is best suited for a king. Compared to this, Aparājitapṛcchā writes, the Bhadra for Pratāpavardhana palace is divided into three parts breadth wise and one of the part is regarded as mukhabhadra, which is adorned with ten pillars is known as Lakṣmīvilāsa palace. Here the Māḍa is done above two storey can go unto five and half storey. For Śrīnivāvsa palace similar description was noticed in both the books. This palace is having thirty-six pillars on twenty-five parts of the land. Wall will be equal to one-tenth part of the construction in length and four doors are also erected. Bhadra is divided into nine parts with three mukhabhadras in one part. This palace will be three and half storied with hundred and four pillars. Māḍa type of construction is done above three or five storeys. Kṣīṇabhūṣaṇa type of palace is constructed on a square land measuring eight by eight squares and the foundation is on the seventh segment. Partition wall will be within half of the squares. There will be four doors and twenty-five small pillars. bhadra is divided into three parts and three Pratibhadras will be raised on one part of bhadra. The number of pillars in a bhadra may be four or five but total number of pillars may vary from eighty to two hundred. Māḍa is constructed above three stories in a bhadra and in a house it will be above sixth stories.

xxii Vāstumaṇḍana Aparājitapṛchhā differs to certain extent on this type of palace. The wall is one- eighth part of the construction and there will be four doors. Bhadra will have twenty- five small pillars and thirty-six large pillars. There will be three pratibhadras in a bhadra and six pillars in each pratibhadra. Altogether there will be seventy-two pillars and sixty-four small pillars. Māḍa type of construction will be above three stories and may go upto six stories. The last one known as pṛithvījaya, is mentioned in Vāstumaṇḍana where the land is divided into ten by ten squares and walls are erected proportionately. The center of the palace is adorned with hundred pillars and the construction goes up to seven and half stories. There will be fifty-two pillars in a three and half storey construction. We find general measurement of the palaces also. The area of a palace can start from twenty-five hands and can go upto hundred and eight hands. Palaces are decorated with various ornamental materials. Sūtradhāra Maṇḍana deals with this topic elaborately. From his description it is clear that expertise on the architectural design and the construction were very much available at that period. With the help of a chhanda named as prastara, an architect could design varieties of houses. Prastara or permutation is regarded as an important mathematical model by which a graphic representation of different arrangement of a building could be done. D. N. Shukla in his Vāstuśāstra writes--, 'Thus this (prastara) is all mathematical gymnastic. Its practical value is only to avoid wrong orientation and misplacement of any of the component parts in the building of śālā in order to provide the maximum comfort and the fullest of space together with conformity to the mystic ideas of the doctrine of orientation.' (p. 320) Here Prastara means a combination of guru and laghu in accordance with certain rules. In Vāstu, guru implies wall and laghu insinuate alinda. With various combinations of guru and laghu one can design thousand varieties of houses. Vivid illustration of different types of dwelling houses has been found in different chapters of Vāstumaṇḍana. Sometimes it is a description of the abode of a king or landlord, whereas sometimes it is for common man. Chhanda is the seminal aspect of a building, which is applicable to an ordinary house as well as to a king's palace. It is a rudimentary characteristic of Nāgarī style of architecture and discussed elaborately in Aparājitapṛchhā as well as Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra. Chhanda of Vāstu meant 'disposition of a structure,' says Mr. Mankad in the introduction of Aparājitapṛchhā. These rhythmic patterns are of six types, which again have sixteen varieties. These patterns have been planned mainly for designing common people's residence. These are tṛṇa, paṭṭa, vāji, khaṇḍa, parṇa or pūrṇa and pāṇḍu. These are the names of the type of houses which indicate the material by which these houses are to be

INTRODUCTION xxiii constructed. For example: - Tṛṇa type of houses have thatched roof, vāji is made of stone, pāṇḍu is storied mansion and so on. Here the author gives another pragmatic suggestion for six types of chhandas starting with meru. These are meru, khaṇḍameru, sūci, patākā, uddiṣṭa and naṣṭa. Uddiṣṭa and naṣṭa are not independent chhandas. With the laghu and guru placement, a meru structure will look like a Meru mountain. The central part rising considerably above the ground will have side sloping step by step all around till it reaches the ground surface. It is mentioned that in meru, khaṇḍameru and sūci the construction will start with guru that means wall and at the end there will be laghu, i.e., alinda, and the lines will be drawn before hand. In meru and khaṇḍameru the section will increase downwards. In patākā or khaṇḍaprastāra, guru will follow laghu and at the end there will be one laghu. Here the multitude of laghu numerals has been shown in the different manner. Ground plan of a house is regarded as the quintessence of the structure. Vāstumaṇḍana states that the ground plan can start from one square and can go up to thousand squares. According to the shape of a land, ground plan may be of thirty-two types. The best and commonly known ground plans are with sixty-four square or eighty-one squares. These are known as chandita and paramaśāyika. There is a Vāstupuruṣa in every site and a chart is drawn accordingly which is known as 'Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala.' Here forty-five deities reside also on different parts of Vāstupuruṣa. Again we find positions of gods in sixty-four, eighty-one and hundred square plans. Marmavāstu is another type of ground plan, which according to the author should be kept in mind during any type of construction. Marma, the orthogonal is very important in site plan with 'Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala.' Marma indicates the particular places, where there will be no structure. It not only states that a percentage of the plot should remain unused but also insinuates the location of the open places in the general plan. Moreover, Vāstumarma is co-extensive with the prāsāda and these marmas affect the position of pillars in a construction. [Ninety-third chapter of Agnipurāṇa describes twelve marmas in a Vāstu. This orientation of structure is the practical application of the general principle of Vāstupadavinyāsa]. With the given description in Vāstumaṇḍana one can easily draw a chart of Marmavāstu and can get a legible and perspicacious picture where construction should be done or not to be done. In the fourth chapter he gave general height of houses. It can be of three types. The half of the width is to be multiplied by four, three and two, and one will get the prescribed height of a house. Calculation can be started from the floor of

xxiv Vāstumaṇḍana the house. These three types of houses can again be divided into nine (three each) by dint of permutation combination. Here we find illustration of multi-storied houses meant for different class of people. Minimum diameter of a house will be eight hands and it can go up to ten and half hands similarly. For common people there will be one or two storied house Eleventh storey is the highest number, which are designed for a king with top and bottom floor construction. Each upper floor will be one twelfth part less than the lower one. Lime powder, limestone, gravel and brick powder were deployed for plastering. About the shape, the author mentioned that the land could be square or rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal, round or oval. Thus one could have wide options for selecting a land. The book also describes a type of house, known as śālā house. These types of houses are mentioned in the Purāṇas as well as in some other Vāstu texts such as Mānasāra, Mayamata, Aparājitapṛchhā, etc. This text discusses the śālā houses very systematically catering to the need of everybody starting from common man to the king. One to four śālā houses are meant for common people of four varṇas, and five to ten śālā houses are meant for king or people of similar category. Here the author quotes sometimes from Mayamata and Aparājitapṛchhā mentioning that the width of a śālā house could start from four hands and can go upto twenty to twenty-four hands. The length will be one and half times of the breadth for a king's house, but may be more for a religious establishment. Prescribed measurement and location of the corridor are also mentioned. Here we find the use of guru and laghu for the design of different types of śālā houses. At first a religious establishment known as paṭhaśālā has been described. It is adorned with latticed window, altar, porticos, specific type of gates, etc. This may be a double storied building furnished with granary, treasury, kitchen, etc. While constructing a house, the author places special emphasis upon the foundation details, walls and pegs. Himself being an architect, he has attached importance to each and every minute intricacy of a construction and judicious placing of the components. In the sixth and eighth chapters we notice elaborate discussion of houses with different number of śālā. The śālā houses may be of ten varieties, but five to ten śālā houses are of different types combining the result of one to four śālā houses. According to the various position of Prastarachhanda each śālā house has many sub varieties. For example:- Ekaśālā houses primarily have only sixteen varieties each