प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

78 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Payment of Fees: No Stipulation:—Stipulation for fees was vehemently condemned in ancient India. No student could be refused admission even by a private teacher simply because he was too poor to pay any fees. A teacher guilty of this misdemeaner was declared to be unfit to officiate at religious ceremonies and was held to obloquy as a mere trafficker in learning.¹ It was held that the cause of education was a sacred one; every teacher qualified to teach must teach as a matter of duty. The relations between the teacher and the student should be based upon mutual affection and regard, and not on any mercenary consideration.² There is ample evidence to show that this theory was acted upon in all public educational institutions in ancient India. Evidence of indisputable character shows that the Buddhist Univer- sities, temple colleges, Agrahāra institutions, and Maṭhas were all imparting free education to their students. When they used to receive sufficient endowments, they would also arrange to provide free boarding, lodging, clothing and medicine to the students admitted by them. Education therefore was free in a much wider sense in ancient India than is ever dreamt possible in modern times. 1 यस्यागमः केवलजीविकायै तं ज्ञानपण्यं वणिजं वदन्ति । Mālavikāgnimitra, 1. 17 The Saura Purana, X. 42, condemns such a teacher to hell. Such condemnation however may suggest that a small minority of teahers may have been following the objectionable practice. 2 It is interesting to note that there existed a similar prejudice against the charging of fees in ancient Greece for a long time. Neither Socrates nor Plato charged any fees. It was the Sophists who first introduced the custom of offering instructions to any person in any subject he chose, if he offered sufficient remuneration. The practice was despised by the public opinion in the beginning, but was soon adopted by all educational institutions before the 3rd century B. C. Spencippus, the successor of Plato at the Academy, charged fee from his students. Monroe, A Text-book, p. 112

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 79 Private Teachers and Fees: It is necessary to note that what has been condemned by the sacred texts is a stipulation for the payment of fees as a condition precedent to admission; they have no objection to teachers accepting voluntary gifts from the guardians of students reading under them. Just as the teacher was exhorted to remember that teaching was his sacred duty, the guardian also was asked to note that no object in the universe, howsoever precious it may be, can be regarded as an adequate fee for even that humble teacher, who teaches a single letter of the alphabet.¹ Smṛitis resort to this hyperbolic strain because they were anxious that the teacher, who was prevented from charging regular fees, should be in a position to get an adequate living. The exhortation to the guardians was not without its effect. For we find that though in theory the teacher's honorarium (guru- dakshiṇā) became payable only at the end of education², rich guardians used to pay the whole of it in advance according to their ability³. Guardians of ordinary means 1 Cf एकमप्यक्षरं यस्तु गुरुः शिष्ये निवेदयेत् । पृथिव्यां नास्ति तद् द्रव्यं यद्दत्वाऽनृणी भवेत् ॥ Laghu-Hārīta in Par. Mad, I, ii, p. 53 It is interesting to note that Lüther's view was similar. 'I tell you a teacher who faithfully trains and teaches boys can never receive an adequate reward, and no money is sufficient to pay the debt you owe him.' Monroe, A Text-book, p. 414 2 Yājñavalkya repeatedly refused the offer of a handsome fee Janaka on the ground that he had not finished all what he had to teach. Br. Up. IV. 1. 3 Jātakas show that rich persons like merchants and princes used to send the whole amount of school fee in advance when they used to send their sons to Taxila. See Jātakas Nos. 55, 61, 445, 447, 522 etc. Bhīshma also had paid Droṇa his honorarium P. T. O.

80 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. must have found this procedure impracticable and paid the fee by easy instalments, though we have so far got no evidence of this practice prevailing. None who could afford, was permitted to evade payment by the public opinion. It was regarded as a very great disgrace that one should not pay one's teacher though properly instructed, when one had the ability to pay. When Nāgasena, being a monk, naturally expressed his unwillingness to accept the rich and luxurious gifts of his royal pupil, Menander, the latter begged him to change his mind in order to save him from the scandal getting abroad that though properly instructed, he would give nothing in acknowledgment to his teacher (Mil. pan. 1, pp. 134-5). Students whose guardians were really too poor to pay any honorarium were expected to help the teacher in his household work and pay him some honorarium at the end of the course by collecting subscriptions for the purpose.¹ We often come across such students in Jātakas. To refuse their request for subscription was regarded as highly dis- graceful.² Payment of fees: A Resume: There was no fixed scale of monthly or sessional fees prescribed in ancient (Continued from the last page) in advance before he had started the edcuation of the Kaurava princes; Mbh. 1. 142. 1. The same was done by the father of Nāgasena, the preceptor of Menander; Milindapañha. Vol. 1. 17 1 E, G. पच्चा धम्मेण भिक्खं चरित्वा आचारियधनं आहरिस्सामि । No. 478. 2 Cf. King Raghu's observation to Kautsa, who had come to him hoping to get the amount of his teacher's fee:— गुर्वर्थमर्थी श्रुतपारदृश्वा रघोः सकाशादनवाप्य कामम् । गतो वदान्यान्तरमित्ययं मे माभूत्परीवादनवावतारः ॥ V. 24 King Uttaṅka gave his wife's earrings to a graduate, who was asked by his teacher to procure them as his fee. The latter's wife was desirous to wear them.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 81 India. It was the duty of Brahmanas, who were the custodians of ancient culture and learning, to teach all qualified students free of any charge. If a student was poor, the teacher could not refuse him admission; he had to teach him in return for personal service and in expec- tation of some lump sum to be received later, when he had finished his education and was in a position to collect subscription for the purpose. As far as well-to-do persons were concerned, they were expected to pay the maximum they could do to the teacher. Government also was expected to enable the teachers to impart free education by giving them land grants and pensions. It was also expected to give rich endowments to public institutions in order to enable them to offer not only free instruction but also free boarding and lodging. The available evidence shows that this arrangement fostered a proper sense of responsibility and worked on the whole quite satisfactorily. Admission Procedure: In ancient Indian educa- tional system there were no examinations, diplomas and migration certificates; every student, therefore, who sought admission to a higher course, had to undergo a severe test to prove that he was fit for it. The duty to provide free education that was imposed upon teachers and insti- tutions must also have naturally resulted in making the admission test a stiff one. The test was partly moral and partly intellectual. Morally disqualified students were summarily rejected (Nirukta, II. 4). In ordinary schools dullards were given a trial and advised discontinuance of studies, when it was discovered that they could not im- prove. In famous centres like Nālandā, where the rush was great, the admission test was very stiff; only two or three out of ten could succeed in getting admission¹. Both at Nālandā and Vikramāśīlā, there were special

1. Watters, II, p. 165; Beal, II. 170-1. 6

82 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. professors appointed to the task of regulating admission by testing the calibre, capacity and sincerity of the appli- cants for admission¹. Probably similar arrangements existed also in other institutions of higher education. Private teachers would themselves test the capacity of students seeking admission to their schools. At the beginning of Vedic and professional education, some religious rituals also were performed, which will be des- cribed in Appendix I, A. The Size of the Class: The income of the private teacher varied with the number of his students, and we sometimes come across rituals prescribed for getting more students. But the actual number of students reading under one teacher does not seem to have been large. The Jātakas no doubt very often state that the ‘world-renowned’ teachers of Taxila used to have 500 students reading under them; but this statement seems to be an exaggera- tion, suggested by the traditional number of disciples usual- ly associated with the Buddha. For all available evidence shows that the strength of a class under one teacher was usually about 15. Nālandā used to have about a thousand teachers for its student population of not more than nine thousand. In the 11th century in the Vedic college at Ennāyiram, each teacher had only about 20 students under his charge². At Benares during the 17th century, sometimes only four and usually about 12 to 15 students used to work under one teacher³. In the 19th century the number of students under one teacher in Sanskrit

1. These scholars bore the rather curious title of Dvārapālas or door-keepers. See Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddist Universities pp. 47, 60.
2. S. I. E. R., 1918, p. 145.
3. Bernier, p. 145.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 83 schools at Nadia varied from 10 to 20¹. It therefore seems to be almost certain that the Jātaka statement about the teachers at Taxila having 500 students each is an exaggeration. The normal strength of a class was never more than 20. School Hours: Curiously enough there is very little information available about the school hours. Smṛitis are altogether silent upon the point. We should however note that in ancient time press, paper and cheap books were absent; so home work or home reading was practically impossible. All the work had to be done under the guidance of the teacher or the monitor. Literatur often describes the early morning time as resounding with the sound of the recitation of students². So there is no doubt that there was a morning session, probably starting at about 7 A.M., when the daily religious duties were over. The morning session continued till about 11 A.M., when both the students and the teachers had to break off for their religious duties and meals. The noon meal was followed by a short rest and the school reassembled at about 2 P. M. and worked for three or four hours. The school period was spent partly in what may be called homework and partly in learning new lessons. The former consisted of committing to memory the texts expounded earlier with the help of one or two copies of the book existing in the school or under the direction of a senior monitor, who was well versed in it. The memorising and revision work was usually done in the morning, and new lessons were taught in the afternoon. Such at any rate was the tradition in the Sans-

1. Nadia Gazetteer, p. 182.
2. शुश्राव ब्रह्मघोषान् स विरात्रे ब्रह्मरक्षसाम् । Rāmāyaṇa. बटुपटलसमारब्ध स्वाध्यायाध्ययनध्वानप्रबुद्धासु । Vāsavadattā

84 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. krit schools of Bengal and Bihar. We must remember in this connection that Brahman teachers were busy in the morning in performing their own religious duties or offici- ating at religious functions and ceremonies to which they were often invited. The noon session therefore must have been usually devoted to teach new lessons. It is however quite possible that there may have been no hard and fast rules in this connection. If the teachers were free, the morning session also may have been devoted to new lessons. In organised colleges which engaged full time teachers, this may have been generally the case. No One Time School : It must have been noticed that there was no one time school in ancient India. One time school, either in the morning or in the afternoon, would not have suited the religious habits of the age, which necessitated the performance of religious duties both in the morning and the noon. It has to be noted that most of the teachers of higher education belonged to the priestly class. Students usually lived with their teachers or very near their houses or in small villages; so attendance at the school two times a day did not cause any physical inconvenience similar to what is felt by the children living in big cities and attending schools situated far off. Nor was it necessary to keep either morning or noon free to students for their home work; for no home work was possible. Even the richest student in ancient times could not afford to have about half the number of books and exercises, which the poorest student is compelled to procure in the modern age. Night Classes : Poor students who could not pay any honorarium to the teacher had to do a good deal of the household work for him. They naturally could not be present throughout school hours during the day. Teachers used to hold night classes for their convenience.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 85 There is definite evidence to show that this practice pre- vailed at Taxila¹; probably it obtained in other places also. College Session : Pre-historic Period : The Upākarma and Utsarjana rituals show that the college session could not have lasted for more than five or six months². It began sometime in August and ended some- time in February. Such was the case in prehistoric times when Vedic hymns only formed the main subject of study. When however the sacred literature became more exten- sive and new branches of learning were developed like grammar, philology, astronomy, philosophy and sacred law (Dharmaśāstra), the short session of six months was found to be inadequate and studies began to be prosecuted throughout the year. College Session : Later Times: There is ample evidence to show that in later times, though the Utsarjana ceremony, which marked the suspension of the Vedic studies, was performed in February, the college work went on uninterrupted. Manu, for instance, states that in spite of the Utsarjana ceremony, the study of the Vedas and Vedāngas should be continued throughout the year (IV.98). College terms followed by fairly long vacations, with which we are now familiar, seem to have been altogether unknown in ancient India since about the 7th century B.C. Transport difficulties were immense and students from Rājagṛiha (near Patna) and Benares going to distant places like Taxila used to return home only when the whole course was over³ (Jā. No. 252). They therefore 1 धम्मन्तेवासिका आचारियस्स कम्मं कत्वा रत्तिं सिप्पमुग्गह्वंति, आचारियभागदायका गेहे जेट्ठ पुत्ता विय हुत्वा सिप्पमेव उग्गह्वंति। Jātaka No. 252. 2. Appendix I, section C. 3. The rule in the Arthas̄āstra laying down that the wife of a Brahmana student should wait ten or twelve years before P. T. O.

86 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. continued their education throughout the year, and had no long vacations like those we have at present. The present day custodians of Sanskrit learning are unaware of any tradition about long vacations obtaining in the past. If a student had some urgent work, he could take leave and go home to attend to it. Those whose homes were very near may have occasionally gone home on some of the usual holidays. But the entire teaching work does not seem to have been suspended for any part of the year. Work also was not much disturbed by different students going home at different times; for generally speaking each student was taught separately. The List of Holidays: We come across a system- atic list of holidays only in post-Vedic¹ literature. But many of these go back to very early times. Regular holidays were four in the month at an interval of a week, the new and full moon days and the eighth day of each fortnight. Sympathetic interest with the inhabitants of the locality was also responsible for the stopping of the work sometimes, when the peace of the settlement was disturbed by an invasion or by incursions of robbers or cattle-lifters, or when the king or a Brahmana of the village had met with an accident or died. Arrival of distinguished guests led to the suspension of studies; for a good deal of the time and energy of both the teacher and the students had to be devoted to make the guests comfortable. Holidays for Bad Weather, etc:—Abnormal wea- ther conditions giving rise to untimely clouds, thunder,

(Continued from the last page) remarrying or having recourse to Niyoga also suggests that there used to exist no long vacations when married students could go home and stay for sometime with their families. Cf. III. 4.

1. G. D. S., II. 7; B. Dh. S. I. 11. Manu, IV. 100 ff.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 87 heavy showers, frost, dust-storms etc. were also regarded as sufficient causes to suspend studies. Holidays for these causes seem to go back to hoary antiquity, when students and teachers lived in humble cottages and were engaged in agricultural pursuits. It must be further remembered that the teaching and learning of the Vedic hymns in the manner in which it is done traditionally was physically impossible when a storm or lightning was thundering abroad. In later times when teachers were well-to-do men living in towns and villages and not directly concerned with active agricultural pursuits, it is doubtful if studies were suspended when there was a dust-storm or frost. When the howling of jackals, crying of wolfs, screeching of owls, braying of donkeys or barking of dogs was heard, teaching was temporarily stopped, partly, on account of superstitious beliefs and partly due to the notion that the Vedic study was so sacred an affair that it could be prosecuted only under ideally pure circumstances. It was apprehended that gods would become angry if the sanctity of the Vedas was defiled by their being studied on such occasions.¹ Curtailment of Holidays: In course of time most of the holidays mentioned in the last paragraph were abolished. Curriculum was getting heavier and some reasons had to be found for departing from the old tradition. Some authorities, therefore, started the theory that prohibition of studies under abnormal weather condi- tion referred only to loud recitations; silent reading was 1 Cf. छिद्राण्याहुर्द्विजातीनामनध्यायान्मनीषिणः ।' छिद्रेभ्यः स्रवति ब्रह्म ब्राह्मणेन यदर्जितम् ॥ आयुः प्रजां पशून्मेधां कृन्तामि सुकृतं च यत् । अनध्यायेष्वभ्यसतः ब्रह्म व्याहरतस्तथा ॥ Quoted by Aparārka on Yāj. I, 142-151.

88 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. not intended to be interdicted.¹ Others held that non- Vedic works could be studied on the official holi- days.² It would appear that in later times discretion was given to different institutions as to what holidays should be permitted by them to their students. Holidays allowed to the youngsters were to be more numerous than those to be allowed to advanced students.³ This was certainly a very sound educational principle. In the case of serious students, apart from the four monthly holidays, studies seem to have been suspended since early times only when they themselves or the place they were study- ing was impure.⁴ Organisation of Courses: The modern reader will be surprised to learn that in ancient India there were no central bodies like the senates or boards of studies to prescribe a clear cut course of a definite duration in different subjects. This was a natural consequence of the circumstance that education was mostly imparted by private teachers: they did not belong to any institution, nor were they controlled by any government. There was also another reason for this phenomenon. Ancient Indians regarded knowledge as unlimited and no period that one could spend for its acquisition was regarded as adequate for the purpose.⁵ The duration and contents of the 1 B Dh.S, I, 11, 40:मनसा चानध्याये । A.D.S, I . 3. 11 24 . 2 Manu II. 105. ; cf. also, Kûrmapurāna; नानध्यायोस्ति चांगेषु नेतिहासपुराणयोः । न धर्मशास्त्रेष्वन्येषु पर्वेण्येतानि वर्जयेत् ॥ 3 तत्र सर्वत्र प्राज्ञाप्राज्ञाध्येतृविषयेण गुरुलघुकालानां व्यवस्था ज्ञेया । V. M. S., p. 536. 4 T. A., II, 15 ; Manu, IV. 127. 5 There is an interesting parable in this connection in Tai. Br., III. 10. 11. 3 A Brahmana named Bhāradvāja spent three P. T. O.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 89 course were therefore largely determined by the will, capacity and convenience of the student. Some students who wanted to get an all-round mastery used to read for as many as 25 or 30 years. Others who were home sick or were content with a superficial knowledge, used to return home in six or even three years. Intelligent stu- dents, who could master the course in a shorter time, were allowed to return as soon as their studies were over. Normal Duration of the Course: The course of higher education usually began with Upanayana at about the age of ten and extended over about 12 years. The tra- dition is quite definite about the Vedic course extending over that period. This period was necessary for the study of one Veda along with its subsidiary branches. The duration of the courses of non-Vedic studies like philology, logic, philosophy, poetics, Dharmaśāstra, etc. is not definitely known. The students of these subjects had to study a few Vedic hymns, necessary for their religious duties, and a good deal of grammar in order to get the facility for understanding works in advanced Sanskrit prescribed for their courses. The full grammar course extended over ten years in the 7th century A. D.; but the students of poetics, philosophy or sacred law (Continued from the last page) successive lives in attempting to master all the Vedas. On learning that he proposed to spend his fourth life also for the same purpose, Indra appeared before him, shewed him three hillocks of corn, and taking a handful from each, told him that the three Vedas were infinite and what he had learnt of them in three lives bore the same proportion to what remained to be mastered as his three handfuls bore to the hills of corn lying in front. Sanskrit literature is full of sayings to the effect that knowledge is infinite and cannot be mastered in one's life:— अनन्तपारं खलु शब्दशास्त्रं स्वल्पं तथायुर्विपुलाश्च विद्याः।

90 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. (Dharmaśāstra), may have finished their grammar course in five or six years and devoted about ten years for getting a mastery in the subject of their choice. A person who wanted to be regarded as cultured and well educated had thus to spend about 15 or 16 years for his education, subsequent to the time of his Upanayana at about the age of eight or nine.¹ Usually he could finish his education and become an expert in one particular branch at about the age of 24, which was regarded as the ideal age for marriage. It is interesting to note that in medieval Europe also, the complete course of Latin education covered a period of about 15 years (Raymond, Principles, p. 193). Longer course for special experts : Those however who wanted to become special experts² or get the mastery of several Vedas or wanted to specialise in more than one branch of knowledge had to devote a much longer period for their studies. They had to spend another 10 or 12 years and their studentship continued to the age of 35 or 40. Megasthenes³ and Colebrooke⁴ refer to such students, when they both refer to scholars prosecuting their studies even at the age of 37. Society however did not approve of the devotion of so great a part of life to the cause of studies, if the person eventually intended to marry. One authority states that a person ought to be married in the prime of his life; to postpone marriage to the age of 35 or 40 would be a

1 I-tsing, pp. 170-77 2 Twenty years were required for mastering the Krishna Yajurveda and the enormous number of sacrifices and rituals connected with it. Education Commission Report, Madras Prov. Committee, 1882, p. 6. 3 Fragment No. 41, 4 Nadia Gazetteer p, 182,

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 91 folly.¹ Specialisation had come into field early; it was not necessary for a person to master several Vedas or several branches of knowledge. It was feared that if this was indiscriminately encouraged, some students would be tempted to prolong their education indefinitely, especially since society used to provide them with free boarding and lodging.² The case of teachers and professors was different; they had already become earning and useful members of society. They were expected to be life-long students and acquire efficiency in several branches. Life-long studenthood: Actuated by spiritual motives, some persons in ancient India used to observe life-long celibacy and devote their time entirely to religion and education.³ They were known as Naisṭhika Brahmachārins. Their primary motive was spiritual salvation, but it was to be achieved not by penance or meditation, but by the dedication of a life of chastity to the cause of the sacred lore. Unmoved by praise or reproach, they carried on their work, without mixing much with the mundane world and its affairs. Their sole concern was a thorough acquisition of knowledge. 1 Cf. कृष्णकेशो ह्यग्नीनादधीतेतिश्रुतेः । Bau. Dh. S., I, 2, 31. Śabara thinks that only eunuchs can contemplate the 'postponement of marriage to the age of 48. Cf. अपुंस्त्वं प्रच्छादयन्तश्चाष्टाचत्वारिंशद्वर्षाणि ब्रह्मचर्यं चरितवन्तः । On P.M., 1, 3, 2 Cf. विना कुटुंबभरणात्तपोविद्यार्थिनः सदा । द्वीपे निवासितव्यास्ते बद्धा दुर्गेऽदरेऽथवा ॥ Śukra, IV. 1, 105. 3 Some of the medieval writers, who did not know the real object of Naishthika Brahmacharya, have recommended it to dumb, deaf and impotent persons, who could not marry. पंग्वादीनामनंशत्वा- दसामर्थ्याच्च शास्त्रतः।नियतं नैष्ठिकत्वं स्यात्कर्मस्वनधिकारतः ॥ V M S. p. 551. Aparārka, Madana and Mādhava have however pointed out how this view is wrong.

92 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. 'Forgetting fatigue', says Yuan Chwang, 'they expatiate in arts and sciences; seeking for wisdom..they count not 1000 li (roughly equal to 200 miles) as a long journey. Though their family may be in affluent circumstances, such men make up their minds to be like vagrants and get their food by begging, as they go about. With them there is honour in knowing the truth and there is no disgrace in being destitute' (I. 160-1). Smṛitis require a Naisṭhika Brahmachari to serve his teacher throughout his life; in actual practice however they used to establish new centres of education after some time. Famous teachers like Kaṇva and Divākarasena (of the Harshacharit) were such Naishṭhika Brahmachāris. This ideal of Naishṭhika Brahmacharya, which is peculiar to India, enabled her to make striking progress in learning and philosophy. EDUCATIONAL FINANCE. Introduction: We have seen already that the item of students' fees was a minor one in the income of the private teacher and did not figure at all in the budgets of public colleges and universities. The question therefore naturally arises as to how education was being financed in ancient India. Society, which had frowned upon the practice of charging regular fees as a mercenary and unworthy procedure, used to succeed in getting ample support for the cause of education by appealing to the religious and charitable instincts of the public. Vidyādāna or a gift in the cause of education was pronounced to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious efficacy than even the gift of land (bhūmidāna).¹ Religion had a

¹ सहस्रसंमिता धेनुरनडुवान्दशेभवः । दशानुडुत्समं यानं दशयानसमं हयः ॥ दशवाजिसमा कन्या भूमिदानं च तत्समम् । भूमिदानात्परं नास्ति विद्यादानं ततोऽधिकम् । Bṛihaspati quoted in SCS., p. 145.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 93 great hold over the public mind in ancient times and this spiritual exaltation of Vidyādāna secured so wide and ample a response to the cause of education, both from the public and the government, that it used to become possible to impart free education at least to all poor students, wishing to derive its benefits. Help by Society; the Quota of Ordinary Men: There is ample evidence to show that society was always anxious to help the cause of education in a variety of ways. Even the poorest family was required to support the cause of education by giving a morsel of food to the poor and hungry student coming to beg food at the door at midday; to turn away such a student was pronounced to be the gravest of sins.¹ Men of ordinary means used to support the cause of education in a variety of ways. They used to offer presents only to learned Brahmanas on the occasion of Śrāddha; these presents were fairly numerous and frequent for the Śrāddha was performed in ancient times once in a month and not once in a year, as is the case now. On the occasion of religious feasts as large a number of students and teachers as possible was invited: the citizens of Taxila, for instance, were particular to follow this practice (Jātaka No. 498). On auspicious occasions like Upanayana and marriage, families used to give donations in cash or kind to teachers and educational institutions.² The Quota of Richer Citizens: Rich persons used to help the cause of education in more substantial ways. They would often engage the services of a teacher ¹ स्त्रीणां प्रत्याचक्षाणां समाहितो ब्रह्मचारी इष्टं दत्तं हुतं प्रजां पशून्ब्रह्मवर्चस- मन्नाद्यं वृङ्क्ते । Ap. Dh. S., I. 1, 3, 24-25 G. Br., 2. 5-7 has a similar warning. ² The citizens of Salotgi, for instance, used to follow this practice; see E. I., IV, p. 60.

94 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. for their children and permit the villagers also to send their wards to study under him. Sometimes they used to take the lion's share in meeting the expenses of the local school. They used to offer substantial help to graduates collecting subscription for paying honorarium to their teachers. Very often they used to defray the expenses of copying books with a view to present them to scholars or schools. In an age in which there existed neither press nor paper, gifts of books were very badly needed.¹ Very rich persons sometimes used to found free feeding houses for the poor in general and the students in particular ;² sometimes they would construct college buildings either as a matter of charity³ or in commemoration of some departed relation.⁴ Others would often endow chairs⁵ 1 These have been recommended by Purāṇas ; cf. शास्त्रे यस्माज्जगत्सर्वं संश्रितं च शुभाशुभम् । तस्माच्छास्त्रं प्रयत्नेन दातव्यं शुभकर्मणा ॥ Quoted by Aparārka on Yāj I. 212. Both Nālandā and Valabhī used to get grants for books ; see Chap. VI. 2 These, for instance, existed at Kolagalli, Managoli, Nilgund, Nes- rage, Bagewadi, Belgamve, Dambal, Gadag and Behati in Karnatak and at Kharepatan in Konkan during 1000-1400 A. D. See, I. M. P., Bellary No. 82 ; E. I., V. p. 22 ; Ibid, III, p. 208 ; J. B. B. R. A, S., X, p. 256 ; I. A , VII, p. 307 ; Ibid, V, p. 49; Ibid, X, p. 188 ; Ibid, I, p. 30 ; Ibid, IV, p. 274 ; E. I, IV, p. 355 respectively. 3 Nārāyaṇa, a Rāshtrakūṭa minister, had done this in 945 A. D for the college at Salotgi ; E. I. IV. p. 180. 4 For instance a Brahmana landlord at Kudarkot had erected a building for a Vedic school in memory of his son killed in war ; E I., l. p. 180. 5 These were known as Adhyayanavrittis and Vedavrittis and their holders were also required to recite and expound Vedas and Purāṇas for the benefit of the public. At a single village named Kuttalam in Trichinopoly district sixteen endowments were made for this purpose within the short interval of 150 years during the Vijayanagara rule ; see S. I. E. R., for 1917, nos. 481 and 487 of 1917.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 95 or make grants of land to meet some recurring expenses. This was a combination of Vidyādāna and Bhumidāna, and was very popular.¹ Those who were extremely rich would often found and endow schools and colleges.² Sometimes village communities³ and trade guilds⁴ also would organise and finance educational institutions from their own resources. The Example of the Punjab: That the tradition to help the cause of education was deep-rooted in society would become quite clear from what we know about the state of the Punjab on the eve of the British conquest. Dr. Leitner, its first Educational Commissioner, observes. “Respect for learning has always been the redeeming feature of the East. To this the Punjab formed no exception. Torn by invasions and civil war, it ever preserved and added to educational institutions. The most unscrupulous chief, the avaricious money-lender and even the free-booter vied with the small money- lender in making peace with his consciene by founding schools and rewarding the learned. There was not a 1 A local magnate had given a gift of 200 nivartanas of land to the college at Salotgi; E. I. IV, p. 60. See also I. A., XII, p. 258 and XIII, p. 94 for similar gifts given at Soratur and Dharwar. 2 Chāngadeva, for instance, a grandson of Bhāskarāchārya, the famous astronomer, had founded a college at Pātan; see E. I., I. p. 30; Perumal, a Hoysal minister, had founded a college at Metugi in Karnatak in 1290 A. D. where Vedas, Śāstras, Canarese and Marathi were taught; see E. C III, Tiru-Narspur, No. 27 3 The Sanskrit college at Ennayiram was endowed by the local village community; S. I. E. R., 1918, p. 145; the village commu- nity at Belur had made a grant of land for meeting part of the expenses of a local institution; see I. A., XVIII, p. 273. 4 A guild at Dambaḷ in Dharwar district was maintaining a Sanskrit college in the 12th century; I. A., VIII, p. 185. 5. A History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab, p. 1; Indian Education Commission, 1882.

96 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. mosque, a temple or a Dharmashālā that had not a school attached to it, to which the youths flocked chiefly for religious education. There were few wealthy men who did not entertain a Maulavi, a Pandit or a Guru to teach their sons, and along with them, the sons of their friends and dependents. There were hundreds of religious men who gratuitously taught their coreligionists, and sometimes all comers, for the sake of God. There was not a single villager who did not take pride in devoting a portion of his produce to a respected teacher." For obvious reasons the reverence for education in other parts of India in the ancient period could not have been less sincere and deep than it was in the Punjab at the advent of the British rule. Government’s Contribution, Direct Form : Let us now see how the governments used to help the cause of education in ancient India. Governments usually reflect the views of society and cannot much lag behind it in helping the causes cherished by it. This happened in ancient India also. There is no Smṛiti which does not recognise patronage of education as one of the most important duties of kings ;¹ and as a general rule, rulers in ancient times used to vie with one another in dis- charging it. This they did both directly and indirectly. Sometimes they used to found or endow colleges, as was, for instance, done by the Guptas at Nālandā. On auspi- cious occasions like coronation they used to invite learned 1 See Manu, VII, 82 ; Yāj. I, 130 ; Sukra, I, 369 ; Arathasāstra, II, 1 and 20. Bhishma pointedly draws the attention of Dharma to this duty ; see Mbh. XIII, chaps. 59 and 60. Though extending patronage, kings were not to assume a patroni- sing attitude to learned men. King Raghu treats Kautsa very courteously ; Dushyanta leaves behind his army when approaching the hermitage of Kaṇva.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 97 Brahmanas and found a colony of theirs, endowing villages to meet the expenses of the new settlers. This was tantamount to founding a new college, for these Brahmana colonies used to develop into famous centres of education. Governments used also to grant lands or pensions to most of the learned Brahmanas that used to come to their courts. Liberality of kings like Kanishka, Chandragupta II, Harsha and Bhoja is well known to history and tradition¹. Scores of copper-plate grants published so far show that kings were generally in the habit of giving land grants to learned and pious Brahmanas. These latter in their turn used to offer free tuition and thus help the cause of education. But for royal patronage poets and authors like Kālidāsa, Bāṇa Bhavabhūti, Vākpati, Rājaśekhara and Śrīharsha could not have done as much literary work as they did. The tradition of giving direct monetary help to learned Brahmanas promoting the cause of education continued down to Some of the kings, who had extended patronage to famous scholars, may be mentioned here:—

1. Aśvaghosha and Charaka were the proteges of Kanishka. The Sātavāhanas of the Deccan were famous for their patronage of scholarship. Numerous are the stories still current of the liberality of Chandragupta Vikramāditya to men of letters. His successors Kumāragupta, Tathāgatagupta, Narasimhagupta and Budhagupta endowed a number of villages to Nālandā University. Emperor Harsha was not only a patron of letters, but himself a good poet and dramatist. Bhavabhūti and Vākapati belonged to the entourage of king Yaśovarman of Kanauj. King Mahendrapāla and Mahīpāla of the same city were the patrons of the famous dramatist Rājaśekhara. Kings Muñja, Sindhurāja and Bhoja of the Paramāra dynasty are subjects of numerous anecdotes illustrative of their love of learning. The last mentioned one was himself a great author. Vikramāditya VI of the Chālukya dynasty invited poet Bilhaṇa to his court from Kashmir and extended his patronage to Vijñāneśvara, whose Mitāksharā is still regarded as authoritative in law courts. Umāpati- deva, Dhoi, Govardhana and Jayadeva were living at the court of king Lakshmaṇasena of Bengal, Hemachandra at the court of king Kumārapāla of Gujarat and Śrīharsha, the author of Naishadha- charit, at the court of kings Vijayachandra and Jayachandra of Kanauj. 7