प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

108 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. having seen them returning during their own life time.¹ And yet we find students flocking to Taxila from far off cities like Benares,² Rājagriha,³ Mithilā⁴ and Ujjayinī.⁵ Kuru and Kośala countries sent their own quota of students. One of the archery schools at Taxilā had on its muster roll, as we have seen already, 103 princes from different parts of India. Heir-apparents of Benares are usually seen being educated at the same place in the Jātakas. King Prasenajit of Kośala, a contemporary of the Buddha, was educated in the Gandhara capital.⁶ Prince Jīvaka, an illegitimate son of Bimbisāra, spent seven years at Taxila in learning medicine and surgery.⁷ As Pāṇini hailed from Śālātura near Attok, he also must have been an alumni of Taxila university. The same was the case with Kauṭilya, the author of the Arthaśāstra. Boarding and Lodging Arrangements :—Students used to go to Taxila only for higher education. They were usually 16 when they came to seek admission there. As a general rule, they stayed in the houses of their teachers. The well-to-do students used to pay their lodging and boarding expenses along with their fees, sometimes even at the beginning of their course. Some of them, who were very rich like prince Juṇha from Benares, used to engage special houses for their residence (Jā. No. 456). Poor students, who could not pay any fees, used to work in their

1. Jātaka No 456.
2. Tilamuṭṭhi Jātaka, No. 252.
3. Jātaka, No. 378.
4. Ibid, No. 489.
5. Ibid, No. 336.
6. M.V. chap. VIII.
7. Jātaka, No. 498.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 109· teacher's house by day ; special classes were held for them at night. **Subjects of Study :—**As stated above, Taxila provided only higher education and students went there for specialisation only. Jīvaka had gone to the city for studying medicine and surgery and two youths from Benares had repaired there for studying archery and elephant lore. The three Vedas, grammar, philosophy and eighteen sippas were the principal subjects selected for specialisation at Taxila. Among the latter were included medicine, surgery, archery and allied military arts, astronomy, astrology, divination, accountancy, commerce, agriculture, conveyancing, magic, snake charming, the art of finding treasures, music, dancing, and painting. There were no caste restrictions on the choice of subjects ; Kshatriyas used to study the Vedas along with Brahmanas and the latter used to specialise in archery along with the Kshatriyas. A Brahmana royal priest of Benares had once sent his son to Taxila not to learn the Vedas but to specialise in archery (Jā. N. 522) Later History and Destruction : We know very little about the educational activities of Taxila subsequent to the beginning of the Christian era. But it is very probable that it continued to flourish down to the end of the Kushāṇa rule (c. 250 A. D.) The Little Yueh-chis, who succeeded the Kushāṇas in the government of Taxila, were barbarous chiefs, as their coins indicate, and the cause of education must have suffered under their unenlightened administration. At the beginning of the 5th century A. D. when Fa Hsien visited the place, there was nothing there of any educational importance.¹ Worse days, however, were in store for this Queen

1. Legge, Fa Hsien, p. 32

110 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. of Learning. The Hūṇa avalanche came at the middle of the 5th century A. D. and ruined whatever was left after the Little Yueh-chi depradations. At the time when Yuan Chwang visited the city in the 7th century A. D., it had lost all its glory and importance. The famous monastery of Kumāralabdha, where that celebrated Sautrāntika scholar had composed his expository works, was in ruins and the condition of the vast majority of the remaining Buddhist establishments was no better.¹ When it is remembered that the inhabitants of Taxila at this time were plucky and devoted adherents of Buddhism, the sad plight of their monasteries will at once convince us that the city was completely wrecked by the Hūṇa invasions. Gone were the days of its former educational glory, never to return. BENARES² Early History. In early Vedic literature Benares does not figure either as a centre of pilgrimage or as a centre of learning. This is but natural, for it took centuries for the Vedic religion to penetrate to eastern United Provinces, Bihar and Bengal. The people of Benares accepted the new religion rather reluctantly and for a long time³ their loyalty to it was by no means unswerving. In the Upanishadic period however Benares became a centre of Aryan religion and culture. One of its kings, Ajātaśatru, figures as a philosopher in the Upanishads,

1. Watters, I, p. 240, p. 245
2. See Altekar, Benares : Past and present, for original sources of this section.
3. King Dhṛitarāshṭra of Benares is known to have given up sacrificial fires because his horse of the Aśvamedha sacrifice was carried away by the Bharata king Śatānīka Satrājīt. Ś. Br., XIII. 5. 4. 19.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 111 anxious to emulate the example of king Janaka of Mithilā as a patron of learning. For a long time, however, Taxila was a more famous centre of learning than Benares. Kings of Benares itself used to send their sons to far-off Taxila, and many of the teachers of this city that figure in the Jātakas are seen to be past students of the Taxila University.¹ In the course of time, however, they began to attract scholars from far and wide (Jā. Nos. 480 and 438). Benares as a Centre of Buddhist Learning : In the 7th century B. C., Benares was probably the most famous centre of education in eastern India; that seems to have been one of the reasons for its being selected by the Buddha as the place for the first promulgation of his gospel. With the imperial patronage under Aśoka, the Sarnath monastery on the outskirts of Benares must have become a famous centre of learning. It went on continuously prospering; in the 7th century A.D., it possessed resplendant and beautiful buildings with tiers of balconies and rows of halls.² Unfortunately Yuan Chwang does not state anything about the educational activity of the Sarnath monastery, but there can be no doubt that it must have emulated the glorious example of neighbouring Nālandā. It had 1500 monk-students. There is ample evidence to show that it continued to be a flourishing centre of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage down to the 12th century A. D.³

1. Cf. तक्कसिलं गत्वा सब्बसिप्पाणि उग्गहित्वा वाराणसिय दिसापामोक्खो आचारियो हुत्वा पंचमाणवकसतानि सिप्पं वाचेति । No. 150. See also No. 80.
2. Watters, II, p. 48.
3. Kumāradevī, the Buddhist wife of the Hindu king Govinda- chandra, had given an endowment to the establishment in the latter half of the 12th century A. D. Excavations also show that the establishment continued to flourish down to c. 1200 A. D.

112 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Benares as a Centre of Hindu Learning : We do not possess much detailed information about Benares as a centre of Hindu learning during the first millennium of the Christian era. Only one Purāṇa casually observes that Benares will be a famons centre of scholarship;¹ the rest are content merely with describing its sanctity as a holy place. Nor have we so far found any inscriptions recording grants given to any educational institute at Benares. In spite of the example of neighbouring Nālandā, Hindu Benares does not seem to have organised any public educational institution. Its learned Brahmanas continued to promote individually the cause of educa- tion in the traditional manner. Their fame, however, was gradually reaching all the corners of India. Scholars and philosophers like Śaṅkarāchārya found it necessary to repair to the city to get their new theories recognised and published. In the 11th century A.D. Benares and Kashmir were the most famous centres of learning in India.² We may well presume that most of the learned donees of the Gahadwal grants were conducting efficient Sanskrit schools and colleges in the 12th century A.D. Benares Under Muslim Rule : When Benares passed under the Muslim rule in c. 1200 A. D., hundreds of its temples were razed to the ground by Kutb-ud-din Aibak. The iconoclastic and prosely- ting zeal of the new rulers drove away a number of learned Brāhmaṇa families to south India. We hear very little of any literary or educational activity of Benares during the period 1200 to 1500 A. D.

1. Bhavishya Pu., Brahmakhaṇḍa, Chap. 51. 2-3.
2. The exodus of learned families from the Punjab was responsible for an increase in the scholarly population of both Kashmir and Kāśī towards the beginning of the 11th century.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 113 When however the Deccan also gradually passed under the Muslim rule, scholars in India seem to have made up their mind once more to repair to holy Benares and make it a centre of Hindu learning and scholarship by their united effort in spite of the Muslim rule prevailing there. A number of scholarly families from Maharashtra and Karnatak repaired to Benares in the 16th century and their descendants continued to dominate Benares scholarship for about three centuries. It is important to note that some Muslim rulers also like Akbar, Shah Jahan and Dara Shikoh extended their patronage to some of the famous scholars of Benares. The same was done by a few of their Hindu feudatories in the United Provinces and Central India. Royal patronage during this period however was on the whole more an exception than a rule; if the lamp of learning was kept burning at Benares in medieval times, the credit must on the whole be given to the great love of religion and scholarship of Benares Brahmanas. Education however continued to be imparted not in public institutions but through private teachers. While describing Benares as a centre of learning- during the 17th century A.D, Bernier says, 'Benares is a kind of University, but it has no college or regular classes as in our Universities; but it resembles rather the school of the ancients, the masters being spread over the different parts of the town in private houses.......Some teachers have four and some six disciples; the most eminent may have twelve or fifteen, but this is the largest number.¹ Literary Activity :— The literary activity of Benares was very remarkable during this period. A

1. Travels in India p. 341. 8

114 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. number of works on sacred law (Dharmaśāstra), grammar, poetics, logic and philosophy were composed by Benares scholars in medieval times. If put together, they would be equal to the work done by any other five centres of learning in India. This would give some idea of the literary and educational pre- eminence of Benares during the medieval period. NĀLANDĀ. Early History : Nālandā, about 40 miles south of Patna, was a famous Buddhist place since early times, as it was the place of the birth and death of Sāriputta, the right hand disciple of the Buddha. Asoka is said to have built a temple there. But its rise as a centre of learning has to be placed by about 450 A.D. ; for Fa Hsien, who visited the place in c. 410 A.D. does not refer to its educational importance.¹ Very soon thereafter Nālandā rapidly rose into importance owing to the patronage of a number of Gupta emperors. That the Gupta rulers, who were themselves orthodox Hindus, should have contributed a lion's share to the development, equipment and endowment of the greatest Buddhist University speaks volumes for the catholicity of the age. Śakrāditya, who was probably Kumāragupta I (414-454 A.D.), laid the foundation of the greatness of Nālandā by founding and endowing a monastery there. The splendid Buddha temple in this monastery was for centuries the central place of worship for the congregation. Tathāgatagupta, (who cannot yet be definitely identified), Narasiṁha- gupta Bālāditya, (468-472 A. D.) and Budhagupta

1. According to Tārānāth, Āryadeva, a disciple of Nāgārjuna, was a Nālandā scholar. This, if true, would take back the antiquity of Nālandā by about a couple of centuries. The identity of both Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva and their precise time are not yet definitely determined. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 108-9.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 115 (c. 475-500 A.D.) added one monastery each to the establishment.¹ Vajra, an unidentified successor of Bālāditya, and another unnamed king of central India added two further monasteries to the establishment. New buildings continued to be erected by Hindu and Buddhist donors down to the 11th century. The Lay-out and Buildings: Excavations have shown that Nālandā University covered an area at least one mile long and half a mile broad. Monastic buildings and stūpas attached to them were built according to a preconcieved plan; they were all arranged in a row and not huddled together in any haphazard fashion. The central college had seven halls attached to it; besides there were 300 smaller rooms for the lecturing work. The buildings were superb, several storeys in height. Hwui Li's statement that the upper rooms towered above the clouds and enabled a spectator to see how they changed their shape is of course an exaggeration, but it has now received an unexpected corroboration from a con- temporary record which also avers that the tops of the buildings at Nālandā touched the clouds.² We may therefore take it that the towers and turrets of the colleges, temples and monasteries at Nālandā must have been of impressive height. There were also deep and translucent ponds covered with blue lotuses, which added to the beauty of the place and supplied water and flowers to the establishment. The whole

1. The sequence of these rulers and their time, given both by Yuan Chwang and his biographer, seem to be wrong. See Watters, II p. 164; Life, pp. 110-111.
2. यस्यामम्बुधरावलेहिशिखरश्रेणी विहारावली। मालेवोर्ध्वविराजिनी विरचिता धात्रा मनोज्ञा भुवः ॥ E.I., XX, p. 48

116 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. colony was surrounded by an encircling wall with a door in the southern side.¹ Boarding and Lodging Arrangement: Monk- students were lodged in monasteries specially built for the purpose. Recent excavations have so far revealed the existence of thirteen such monasteries, and a glance at the topography shows that some more must have existed. Monasteries were at least two storeys in height and had both single-seated and double-seated rooms in them. Each room had one stone cot for each occupant and was also provided with nitches for lamp, books, etc. In one corner of the court-yard of each monastery, a well has been unearthed, showing that the problem of water supply was not overlooked. Rooms were assigned to the monk-students according to their seniority and redistribution took place every year. Hearths of huge dimensions have been discovered in each monastery, showing that the messing arrangements were common. The University had received 200 rich villages as endowment² and so could offer free boarding and clothing to its students. The usual practice in Buddhist monasteries was to offer these facilities to lay students, only if they agreed to perform some menial service.³ It is however possible that Nālandā may have offered free lodging and boarding to its

1. Beal, The Life of Hiuen Tsang (by Shaman Hwui) pp. 109- 114; Watters, II, pp. 164-171 and Itsing, pp. 30, 65, 86, and 154 are the main sources of information about Nālandā.
2. This is the number given by I-tsing, who had stayed at Nālandā for 10 years. Yuan-Chwang's biographer mentions only 100 villages in this connection. More villages may have been received in the interval between the two writers.
3. I-tsing, p. 106. In medieval Christian monasteries, the practice was to offer free tuition to all those who intended to join the Order; the laity was expected to pay small voluntary fee for the education of its children. Graves, A History, p. 81.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 117 lay students also,—who were usually Hindus,—in view of its having received so many endowments from Hindu patrons. The Number of Scholars : When I-tsing was living at Nālandā (c. 675 A.D.), there were more than 3,000 monks residing in the establishment (p. 154). The biographer of Yuan Chwang states that in the second quarter of the seventh century the number of the residents of Nālandā would always reach 10,000 (p. 112). The biographer had never been to India and his information therefore was second hand. His figure seems to be a little exaggerated since it is given in round numbers, and since Yuan Chwang himself simply observes that there were some thousand brethren residing at the place (II p. 165). It would, however, seem certain that the actual number of the monks staying at Nālandā must have been at least about 5,000 towards the middle of the 7th century A. D. Both a Monastery and a University : Nālandā, however, was not a mere monastery ; it had obtained so wide a fame primarily because it was a very famous centre of learning. Yuan Chwang says, 'In the establishment were some thousand brethren, all men of great learning and ability, several hundreds being highly esteemed and famous ; the brethren were very strict in observing the precepts and regulations of their order ; learning and discussing they found the day too short, day and night they admonished each other, juniors and seniors mutually helping to perfection. Hence foreign students came to the establishment to put an end to their doubts and then became celebrated, and those who stole the name (of Nālandā) were all treated with respect wherever they went' (II, p. 165). The names of deep scholars and skilful debators, who had distinguished themselves at

118 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. the University, used to be written in white on the lofty gate of the University for being known to every fresher and visitor (Itsing, p, 176). High Standard of Piety and Scholarship: The head abbots of Nālandā used to be as much celebrated for piety as for scholarship. Amongst them were ‘Dharmapāla and Chandrapāla, who gave a fragrance to the Buddha’s teachings, Guṇamati and Sthiramati of excellent reputation among contemporaries, Prabhāmitra of clear argument, Jinamitra of elevated conversation, Jinamitra of model character and perspicacious intellect and Śīlabhadra whose perfect excellence was buried in obscurity’¹ These scholars were not, however, content merely to teach and expound ; they were authors of several treatises, widely studied and highly valued by their contemporaries. The above seven scholars flourished in the first half of the 7th century ; the total number of high class scholars produced at Nālandā during its history of about 700 years must have been very great. At the time of Yuan Chwang’s visit the average scholarship of the establishment also was very high. Out of its 5,000 (or 10,000) monks, there were a thousand who could explain thirty collections of Sūtras, and perhaps ten who could explain fifty.² Rush for Admission from India and Abroad: There was a great rush for admission to the Nālandā University. Students from all parts of India and also from distant foreign countries were anxious to get the benefit of its instructions. Fa Hsien, Yuan Chwang and I-tsing were not the only Chinese scholars that were attracted to Nālandā by its fame

1. Watters, II p. 165,
2. Life, p. 112.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 119 as a centre of learning. During the short interval of thirty years between the visits of Yuan Chwang and I-tsing, Thon-mi, Hiuen Chiu, Taou-hi, Hwui-nieh, Āryavarman, Buddhadharma, Taou-sing, Tang and Hwui Lu, hailing from distant countries like China, Korea, Tibet and Tokhara had visited Nālandā and spent considerable time there in studying and copying manuscripts.¹ The standard of admission was naturally high; 'of those from abroad, who wished to enter the schools of discussion, the majority, beaten by the difficulties of the problems, withdrew; and those who were deeply versed in old and modern learning were admitted, only two or three out of ten succeeding²'. Library Facilities: The Nālandā authorities had realised that a monastery without a library was like a castle without an armoury. The University was maintaining a splendid library to meet the needs of the hundreds of teachers and thousands of students that were engaged in the study of different sciences. One of the reasons why Chinese scholars used to spend months together at Nālandā was to get true copies of the sacred texts and other works of Buddhism. I-tsing got copied at Nālandā 400 Sanskrit works amounting to 5,00,000 verses. Significantly enough the library quarter was known as Dharma-gañja 'Mart of Religion.' It was located in three splendid buildings appropriately called Ratna-sāgara, Ratnodadhi and Ratnarañjaka.⁴ Lecturing Arrangement; Strength of Classes: In the monk population of about 5,000 (perhaps 10,000) 1 Life, Introduction, pp. XXVII-XXXVI 2. Watters, II, p. 165 3. I-tsing, p. 1 4. Vidyabhushana, History of Indian Logic, p. 516

120 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. a thousand could explain, as we have seen already, twenty collections, of Sūtras. This means that there were about a thousand competent teachers to look after the education of about 4,000, but in no case, more than 9,000 monk students. On the average therefore each teacher was in charge of about not more than nine students. Personal attention was thus possible to each student and the teaching therefore must have been very efficient. The college had eight big halls and 300 smaller apartments and every day the authorities used to arrange for about a hundred lectures. Learned monk teachers were held in high veneration and were provided with sedan chairs. They were experts in the art of teaching and expounding; I-tsing gratefully observes, 'I have been very glad that I have had an opportunity of aquiring knowledge personally from them, which I should otherwise have never possessed.' Curriculum : The curriculum at Nālandā was very comprehensive and catholic. The establishment belonged to the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism, but the works of the rival school, the Hīnayāna one, were also taught. This necessitated a study of Pali language, in which most of the Hīnayāna works were composed. Works of the famous Mahāyāna scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu, Asaṅga and Dharmakīrti must have been specially studied. But it is not to be supposed that the curriculum of the University was a sectarian one in the sense that it neglected Hindu subjects. In the first place it must be noted that subjects like grammar, logic and literature were common to both the Hindus and the Buddhists. Secondly, we have to remember that Bauddha and Hindu religion and philosophy had become so intricately interconnected with each other that to study

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 121 the one without the other had become practically impossible not only for the ambitious controversialist but also for the sincere lover of truth. Buddhists themselves inform us that the three Vedas, Vedānta and Sāṁkhya philosophy were taught at the University along with ‘miscellaneous works’¹. The latter expression probably included the study of subjects like Dharmaśāstra (sacred law), Purāṇas, astronomy, astrology etc., which were very important for the lay Hindu and Buddhist students. The study of medicine chikitsāśāstra) which is referred to in the sacred canon, was also prosecuted at the place. Administration: At the head of the general administration was the abbot-principal, who used to be assisted by two councils, one academic and the other administrative. How these bodies used to function has been already described in the last chapter. To arrange for the free boarding and lodging of so vast a number of students as 5,000 (or perhaps 10,000) was a very costly affair ; the University was enabled to do it because different kings had assigned the revenues of a large number of villages for the upkeep of the establishment. The number of these villages was 200 during I-tsing’s stay at the University (c. 675-685 A.D.). Sealings of a number of these villages, obviously attached to letters sent by them to the University administration, have been found in excavations. Later History ; A Foreign Endowment : Nālandā continued to be a famous centre of learning down to the 12th century A. D. An 8th century inscription describes how it was then excelling all other towns and cities on account of its scholars who were

1. Life, p. 112.
2. Mahāvagga, Chap. VI.

122 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch: well-versed in sacred texts and philosophy.¹ In the 9th century the University continued to enjoy inter- national reputation ; Balaputradeva, a king of Java and Sumatra, being attracted by its fame, built a monastery there and induced his friend and ally, King Devapāla of Bengal, to grant five villages for its upkeep.² Part of this endowment was reserved for the purpose of copying books for the University library (Dharmaratnasya lekhānārtham). Work in Tibet : From the 8th century onwards, the scholars at Nālandā began to play an active part in the propagation of Buddhist religion and culture in Tibet. Arrangements therefore must have been made for teaching Tibetan at the institution. Chandra- gomin, a Nālandā monk who flourished at the beginning of the 8th century A.D., was the pioneer in the field. Scores of his works were translated into Tibetan ; many scholars were in fact engaged in translation work. Sāntarakshita, another Nālandā monk and scholar, was invited to Tibet by its king Khri-sron-deu-tsan in 749 A.D. for the purpose of preaching Buddhism. He was given a royal reception and the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet was built under his instructions. He became its chief abbot and vigorously helped the spread of Buddhism till his death in 762 A.D. He received very valuable coopera-

1. E. I., XX. p. 43.
2. E. I., XVII, p. 310, Cf. :— नालंदागुणवृन्दलुब्धमनसा भक्त्या च शौद्धोदनेः । नानासद्गुणभिक्षुसंघवसतिस्तस्यां विहारः कृतः ॥ ..................................................... सुवर्णद्वीपाधिपमहाराजश्रीबलपुत्रदेवेन वयं विज्ञापिताः । यथा मया श्रीनालंदायां विहारः कृतः ।................ ॥

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 123 tion in this work from Padmasambhava, a Kashmirian monk educated at Nālandā¹. Intellectual and literary activity of Nālandā must have continued in subsequent centuries also, for several manuscripts have been preserved to this time, which were copied at Nālandā during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries A.D. Supersession by Vikramasila University : Tārā- nāth informs us that the professors of Vikramaśīlā were often appointed to watch over the affairs of Nālandā by the Pāla rulers². From the 11th century onwards the new University of Vikramaśīlā began to receive a greater share of the royal patronage ; this circumstance may have led to the decline of Nālandā during the 11th and 12th centuries. Evidence from the Tibetan sources shows that by this time Tantricism had aquired a hold over the Buddhist mind and it may have perhaps affected the progress of serious studies. We have, however, no definite evidence on the point. The Destruction of the University : The ruin of the establishment was brought about by the Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khilji towards the end of the 12th century. The buildings were burnt or destroyed and the whole of the monk population was put to the sword. The priceless library of the university was also wantonly committed to flames. Thus perished this famous university at the hands of fanatic invaders who did not know its value. VALABHI³ A Famous Centre of Learning : Valabhi, situated

1. Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities, pp. 116-81.
2. Ibid, p. 86.
3. See Altekar, A History of Important Towns and Cities in Gujarat and Kathiawar, pp. 89-40 for the history of this place.

124      EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA      [Ch. near modern Wala in Kathiawar, was the capital of an important kingdom and a port of international trade with numerous warehouses full of rarest merchandise. During the 7th century, however, it was more famous as a seat of learning. I-tsing informs us that its fame rivalled with that of Nālandā in eastern India;¹ it is however a pity that he should not have given us any details about its literary and educational activity. There were about a hundred Buddhist monasteries at the place in c. 640 A.D.²; and they accommodated six thousand monk-students. The famous Buddhist scholars, Sthiramati and Guṇamati, were the leading scholars of the University at the middle of the 7th century A.D.³ Like Nālandā, Valabhi also was not an exclusively Buddhist or monastic centre of learning. Even Brahmanas from the distant Gangetic plain used to send their sons to that place for higher education⁴. Graduates at Valabhi used to be appointed to posts in the executive line (I-tsing, p. 177); this would have been impossible if secular subjects like law, economics, accountancy and literature had not been cultivated at the place. The University was famous for its catholicity and intellectual freedom.

1. P. 177.
2. Watters, II p. 246.
3. A copper plate grant given in 580 A.D. to a monastery founded by Sthiramati has been found ; I.A., VI, p. 11.
4. अन्तर्वेद्यामभूत्पूर्वं वसुदत्त इहि द्विजः । विष्णुदत्ताभिधानश्च पुत्रस्तस्योपपद्यत ॥ स विष्णुदत्तो वयसा पूर्णषोडशवत्सरः । गंतुं प्रवृत्ते विद्याप्राप्तये वलभीपुरम् ॥   K. S. S. Chap.                      XXXII, 42-43.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 125 We are told that the scholars from all parts of India used to assemble at Valabhi and stay there for at least two or three years to discuss ‘possible and impossible doctrines.’ They used to become famous for their wisdom when they were assured of the correctness of their opinions by the doctors at Valabhi. The names of the famous scholars of the University were written in white on its lofty gates. (Ibid., pp. 176-7). Financial support: Valabhi was a rich city; it had a hundred citizens ‘whose wealth amounted to a million’. The University used to receive considerable support from these merchant princes. The Maitraka kings who were ruling there during c. 480 to 775 A. D., were also great patrons of learning; they used to give direct grants for the purpose of meeting the general expenses of the University as also for strengthening its library¹. Scholars who completed their educational course at the University used to receive either appointments in government service or some financial help to enable them to start their life². This continued to be the case till c. 775 A. D. when the reigning dynasty succumbed to an Arab attack, which resulted in the destruction of the city and of the University. VIKRAMŚĪLĀ³ An International University : Vikramaśilā monas-

1. सद्धर्मस्य पुस्तकोपचयार्थम् । I. A., VII., p. 67 ff.
2. I-tsing, p. 177.
3. Tibetan sources inform us that this monastery was situated in Bihar on a hill on the right bank of the Ganges. Mr. De's identification of Vikramasīlā with Patharaghata hill, 24 miles to the east of Bhagalpur, seems to be correct. The place is full of ancient and extensive ruins, and may yield a rich reward to the excavator. J. A. S. B., N. S., V, p. 7.

126 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. tery, founded by king Dharmapāla in the 8th century, was a famous centre of international learning for more than four centuries. King Dharmapāla (c. 775- 800 A. D.) was its founder; he built temples and monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them. He also erected several halls for the lecturing work. His successors continued to patronise the University down to the 13th century.¹ The monks of the establishment were usually distinguished scholars and the fame of the monastery soon spread beyond the Himalayas. There was continuous intercourse going on between Tibet and Vikramaśīlā for four centuries. A special guest house was maintained for the use of Tibetan scholars coming to learn at the feet of Indian Pandits.² One cannot help admiring the continuous tradition of high scholarship that was maintained at Vikramaśīlā throughout its history. Tibetan sources inform us that Buddha, Jñānapāda, Vairochana, Rakshita, Jetārī Ratnākara-Śānti, Jñāna-śrī-mitra, Ratnavajra, Abhayankaragupta, Tathāgata-rakshita and a host of other Vikramaśīlā scholars wrote numerous books in Sanskrit and translated scores of them in Tibetan. The most distinguished in this galaxy of Vikramaśīlā scholars was undoubtedly Dīpaṅkara Śrī-Jñāna, more commonly known as Upādhyāya Atīśa, who flourished in the 11th century A.D. He went to Tibet at the invitation of its king Chan Chūb and played an important part in the reformation of the Buddhism of that country. As many as 200 books, both original and in translation, have been attributed to him by the Tibetan tradition.³

1. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 30 ff.
2. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow, p. 58.
3. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 32-105.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 127 Strength of the University : When there was such a distinguished galaxy of scholars at Vikramaśīlā, it is but natural that the numerical strength of the establishment should have enormously increased by the number of scholars attracted to the establishment. In the 12th century there were 3,000 monk scholars residing at the place.¹ The college possessed a rich and extensive library, which excited admiration even of its Muslim destroyers. General Administration : The administrative management of the Vikramaśīlā establishment was entrusted by the Pāla rulers to a board of six monks presided over by the chief abbot. Different members of the board were assigned different administrative duties like the ordination of the novices, supply and supervision of servants, distribution of food and fuel, assignment of monastic work, etc. Monk professors led a simple life, the cost of maintaining one of them being equal to the cost of supporting four ordinary monks.² Academic administration : Academic adminis- tration was vested in a council of six dvārapaṇḍitas presided over by the chief abbot. The function of the Dvārapaṇḍita was to test the scholarship of those seeking admission to the college. During the reign of king Kanaka (?), the following were the Dvāra- paṇḍitas of the establishment :— Eastern Gate : Āchārya Ratnākara-śānti Western „ : Vāgīśvara-kīrti of Benares Northern „ : Naropa Southern „ : Prajnākara-mati First Central Gate : Ratna-vajra of Kashmir

1. Ibid, p. 84.
2. Ibid, p. 85.