प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

140 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. was a famous centre of learning. An inscription discovered at this place gives us a graphic description of its literary and pedagogic activities. "In some of its streets the Brahmanas were reading the Vedas, Śāstras and six systems of philosophy; every group of Brahmanas was either reading the Vedas or engaged in listening to the exposition of some higher science, or carrying on ceaseless discussion on logic, or joyously reciting the Purāṇas or settling the meaning of the Smṛitis, drama or poetry. All the Brahmanas of Sarvajñapura were devoted to study, teaching and listening to the dictates of religion and morality."¹ Numerous centres of Higher Education: The above two Agrahāra villages were but typical of their class. As a rule in every Agrahāra village free instructions were given in different branches of Sanskrit learning by the Brahmana donees in return for the provision made for their livelihood by the state or sociey.² Sometimes non-Agrahāra villages also, like Bāhur, 15 miles south of Pondichery, were important centres of higher education receiving grants of the revenues of several villages because they were famous centres of well-known scholars, hailing from all parts of the country.³ Agrahāra villages and endowed temples and monasteries were fairly numerous in ancient India; there used to be at least two or three of them in an area equal to the modern district. We may therefore well conclude that

1. E. C., V, p. 144.
2. Cf. एतेषु किलाग्रहारेषु केचिजपन्ति । अपरे पाठयन्ति । केचित्पठन्ति । अन्ये तत्त्वविद्यामुपदिशन्ति । इतरे अध्यापयन्ति । पश्य पश्य । Keralābharaṇam.
3. E. I., XVIII, p. 14.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 141 centres for higher education were more numerous in medieval times (c. 600-1300 A. D.) than they are today in modern India. Tols : Before concluding this chapter, it will be necessary to refer to Tols or Sanskrit schools which are still fairly numerous in Bengal, Bihar and United Provinces. From very early times, Tols have enjoyed grants of land, on which their teachers and pupils subsisted. These grants were augmented in value and new ones were created when the Zemindars felt themselves secure by the Permanent Settlement of Cornwalis¹. Where there was no specific endowment, the village Pandit used to arrange for the free boarding, lodging and clothing of his students by collecting the necessary funds by raising subscriptions at chief fairs and festivals, and from rich charitable persons. Tols thus are a variety of the Agrahāra type of educational institutions. The classes are usually held in a thatched house. As a rule, each Tol enrolls about 25 students, who are accommodated in mud huts built round the school house. Study courses usually extend over six to eight years and enable the students to appear for the Praveśikā or Admission examination in Sanskrit. Tradition of free Education : It is indeed noteworthy that such tradition of free education should have persisted in spite of foreign rule of several centuries. Learned Brahmanas in India have always been anxious to impart education free to deserving students irrespective of their own financial condition. This tradition exists even today in ancient centres of

1. Report of the Bengal Provincial Committee, Education Commission, 1882.

142 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Sanskrit education like Benares, Nasik, Wai and Nadia. The conclusion therefore seems to be irresistible that in the ancient and medieval periods of Indian history, every student, howsoever poor he may have been, could get the highest education free, provided he was willing, if necessary, to do some manual or menial work for his teacher. Poor parents had not to worry about the educational expenses; their sons could either find admission to free boarding houses or maintain themselves by begging their food daily, which was regarded as the most honorable means of livelihood.

Chapter VI. HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION.: Curriculum, method of teaching and examinations. Subjects and methods of study in the early Vedic period- And in the later Vedic period-The method of study changes at c. 1000 B. C. New topics of study-Combination of liberal and useful education- Vedic studies in the 1st millennium A D —An age of specialisation- Ascendancy of Sanskrit-Courses in grammar, astrology, literature, Smritis, Purāṇas, logic and philosophy-Courses for laymen and monks in Buddhist colleges-Selection of text-books. Method of teaching and study-Books normally not available, hence the oral method of instruction-Importance of recitation and recapitulation-Texts memorised bnt not crammed-Great importance attached to exposition and debate-Individual attention-Help of monitors-No annual or final examinations-No degrees and diplomas- Competitive element kept within limit. Introductory : The history of ancient Indian education is spread over several millennia and we therefore naturally find considerable changes taking place in the curricula in the course of centuries. This is but natural ; for the curriculum is intimately connected with the achievements and aspirations of a people. When the outlook on life changes or when new branches of knowledge are developed, extensive changes become inevitable in the curriculum followed in schools and colleges. In the present chapter, we shall indicate the main topics of study on the literary side, point out the changes in the curricula that took place in the different ages, discuss the methods of study and teaching and ascertain what importance was attached to examinations. EARLY VEDIC AGE (C. upto 1500 B. C.) Subjects of Study : The Vedic literature naturally

144 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. formed the main topic of study in this period. Besides the sacred hymns, there were also some historical poems, ballads and hero-songs¹ in existence, which were also committed to memory by the young scholars of the day, as they often helped the elucidation of many references contained in the Vedic hymns. Students were required to master the principles of prosody and encouraged to develop the powers of versification. Those who intended to follow the priestly profession had to study the details of the rituals associated with the hymns they had committed to memory. The study of elementary geometry, the knowledge of which was necessary for the proper construction of sacrificial altars, was also included in the Vedic course. A knowledge of astronomy, which had enabled the age to find out the difference between the lunar and solar months, was also imparted. Grammar and etymology did not trouble the students of this age because they were yet to be developed. Vedic studies usually began at about the age of nine or ten and Initiation Ceremony known as Upanayana was performed at their commencement. The nature, details, and educational significance of this ceremony will be found discussed in Appendix I, B. The Method of Study : Vedic hymns were studied in this period as specimens of literature to be understood, appreciated, imitated and even excelled if posssible. New hymns² were being composed and the authors of some of them claimed that they were

1. Itihāsa, Purāṇa and Nārāśaṁsī Gāthā are mentioned as early as the Atharvaveda ; XV. 1.
2. The very second stanza of the Ṛigveda, for instance, refers to the earlier and later poets of the Vedic collection ; cf. अग्निः पूर्वे- भिर्ऋषिभिरीड्यो नूतनैर्वा उत । I. 1. 2.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 145 superior to the compositions of the earlier poets.¹ It is interesting to note that some of the poems of the later poets were selected for inclusion in the Vedic collection when it was made in a subsequent age. As new hymns were being composed by contemporary authors, it is but natural that they were not yet regarded as revealed. It was therefore not at all felt necessary that they should be committed to memory so meticulously as not to render possible a single mistake of accent or intonation. Professional priests must of course have committed the hymns very thoroughly to memory in order to ensure facility in their use during the performance of the different rituals. But the mass of people consisting of the warriors, agriculturists and artisans used to learn by heart only some select Vedic hymns, and these too in the same way in which the songs of medieval saints are memorised by the Hindu masses today. More effort was made to understand the meaning of the hymns than to remember their exact wording. LATER VEDIC AGE (C. 1500 to 1000 B. C.) The Subjects of Study : The mass of the Vedic hymns was classified in this period and as a result, the Ṛigveda, the Yajurveda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda came into existence. This led to specialisation in Vedic studies and facilitated the growth of a new type of literature, known as Brāhmaṇa literature, which devoted itself to the exposition of a number of important dogmas, theories

1. नवं नु स्तोममग्नये दिवःश्येनाय जीजनम् । वस्वः कुविद्वनाति नः ॥ V. 15. 4. Cf. also R. V., VII. 35. 14; III. 32. 13. 10

146 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. and practices connected with Vedic sacrifices. Sacrificial rituals became very complex and compli- cated in this period and the professional priests had to devote several years in mastering their details and intricacies. The study of astronomy, geometry and prosody contiuned to progress in this period. The development of the sciences of grammar and etymology started in this age and manuals on these subjects were included in the curriculum. The Method of Study : The Vedic hymns were being gradually differentiated from the Vedic language and it was felt that the sacred literature should be preserved in its pristine form and purity, and should not be allowed to change with the spoken idiom. Vedic scholars of this period began to insist that Vedic hymns should be carefully committed to memory in their precise traditional intonation and accents. Students were not at liberty to change a difficult archaic word for a simple current one. The differentiation of the spoken dialect from the Vedic language raised new problems of interpretation and the age sought to solve them by preparing a list of difficult Vedic words and expressions. which were carefully expounded to students. Vedic students were expected not only to memorise the Vedic hymns, but also to explain their meaning. Ridicule was poured on them if they failed to expound what they had learnt by heart.¹ Learned discussions were a normal and important feature of the student life and young scholars were very anxious to come out successful in them.²

1. स्थाणुरयं भारहारः किलाभूदधीत्य वेदं न विजानाति योऽर्थम्। Nir., I. 18 See also, ibid, 1. 19.
2. A. V., VII. 12, 18; II. 27.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 147 THE AGE OF THE UPANISHADS AND THE SŪTRAS (First millennium B. C.) VEDIC STUDIES; METHOD CHANGED: The Vedic literature began to be universally regarded as revealed in this period and that honour was gradually extended to the Brāhmaṇas¹ and the Upanishads also. Vedic schools had to perform the onerous task of preserving this great and growing literature. The art of writing was known by this time, but its aid was not taken for this purpose, as it was believed that it would be irreligious to do so². The theory that the slightest mistake in the recitation of the Vedic hymns would not only prevent the realisation of the expected reward, but would also bring about a disaster on the reciter³, gained ground in this period and necessitated the devotion of a large part of the energy of the rising generation to the task of the accurate memorising of the Vedic literature. Extraordinary precautions were taken to prevent the corruption of the Vedic text by devising the pada-pāṭha,⁴ krama-pāṭha, jaṭā-pāṭha

1. The prose literature devoted to the task of explaining the rituals, legends and knotty points about the sacrifices enjoined in the Vedic hymns was known by this name. It should not be mistaken with the members of the Brahmana caste.
2. Cf. वेदानां लेखकाश्चैव सर्वे निरयगामिनः ।
3. मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।
4. The pada-pāṭha required the students to memorise each word in the Vedic hymns separately after restoring it to its original form. Supposing a, b, and c were the three opening words of a hymn, the krama-pāṭha recited them as ab, bc, etc., the jaṭā-pāṭha as ab, ba, ab, etc., and the ghana-pāṭha as ab, ba, abc, cba, abc. The reader will now get some idea of the onerousness of the task of memorising these pāṭhas.

148 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. and ghana-pāṭha, and all these had to be committed to memory by those who desired to be regarded as experts in the Vedic lore. This further increased the burden on the memory. As centuries rolled on, it became more and more difficult for the Vedic expert to memorise this extensive and growing literature and also to understand its meaning ; for the spoken dialect was becoming more and more differentiated from the Vedic language. It was therefore decided towards the end of this period that some Vedic scholars should devote their energies to the mechanical memorising of this extensive literature with a view to prevent its loss, while others should address themselves to the problem of its interpretation by studying commentaries, etymology, lexicography, etc. But for this differentia- tion of function, the extensive Vedic literature could not have been preserved for posterity. This arrange- ment no doubt exposed some Brahmanas to the taunt of being mere parrot-like reciters of the Vedic hymns. It is gratifying to find that they did not mind it in the wider interest of the preservation of the national literature and culture. New Topics of Study : The period under review was the most creative era in the history of the Hindu intellect ; it recorded remarkable achievements in the realm of philosophy, sacred law, epic literature, philology, grammar, astronomy and several fine and useful arts like sculpture, medicine and shipbuilding. On the one hand the development of these branches naturally created a new fascination for the students of the age, and on the other, the rise of the protestant movements led by the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist thinkers told on the popularity of the Vedic religion and literature. The current language had now become very widely differentiated from the

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 149 Vedic idiom and thus created a new difficulty in the Vedic studies. As a combined consequence of all these factors, Vedic studies fell into background towards the end of this period and greater attention began to be paid to the cultivation of the new branches of learning referred to above. Combination of Liberal and Useful Education : Several references in the contemporary literature indicate that an attempt was made in this period to combine liberal with professional or useful education. Graduates of this age are usually described as well versed in the Vedas as well as in eighteen sippas, i. e. practical arts and sciences.¹ These latter included archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming, conveyancing, administrative training, music, dancing, painting, engineering, etc². It is of course clear that no graduate could get mastery in all the Vedas as well as in all the sippas as is suggested by some passages; it is however clear from some references in Jātakas that literary education was combined with one of the useful professions referred to above in the famous centres of education like Taxila. This practice enabled the average literary student to stand on his own legs. THE AGE OF THE SMṚITIS, PURĀṆAS AND NIBANDHAS. (1st century A. D. to c. 1200 A. D.) Vedic Studies : The Vedic studies fell further into background during this period. A sufficient number of Brahmanas however was always available to preserve

1. Chh. Up., VII. 1. 2. Mil. P. Vol. I. p ; 247
2. See Appendix IV

150 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations unborn. They used to do their work very thoroughly, for the experts among them would memorise not only the Vedic hymns, but also their pada-pāṭha krama-pāṭha, _jaṭā-pāṭha and ghana-pāṭha._¹ They used to master the details connected with the numerous Vedic sacrifices also. Some of them used to study two, three or even four Vedas and were therefore known as Dvivedins, Trivedins, and Chaturvedins respectively. Many donees of the copperplate grants of this period bear these surnames; they could have become eligible for them only by prolonged and almost life-long devotion to the cause of Vedic studies. This devotion was almost tragic; it did not bring any adequate pecuniary compensation, and required them to memorise texts, which not they, but others, could understand and expound. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during this period. Vedic studies therefore usually meant the mere cramming of the sacred texts and were often commented upon very adversely by some thinkers of the age, some of whom went to the extent of declaring that the intellect is deadened and rendered useless by the parrot-like cramming of the Vedic hymns.² Kings of this age were more disposed to extend their patronage to poets, who could compliment them by composing neat poems in their honour,³ than to Vedic

1. See ante, p. 147.
2. नानुवाकहता बुद्धिर्व्यवहारक्षमा भवेत् । अनुवाकहता या तु न सा सर्वत्रगामिनी ॥ Śukra, III, 261
3. The Vedic Brahmanas are sarcastically described by the door-keepers of king Bhoja as follows:—राजमाषनिभैर्दन्तैः कटिविन्यस्त- पाणयः । द्वारि तिष्ठन्ति राजेन्द्र छान्दसाः श्लोकशत्रवः ॥ They complain P. T. O.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 151 Brahmanas, who could recite hymns, which neither they themselves nor their hearers could understand. New branches of learning like philosophy and belles letters also appealed more powerfully to the intellect and emotions of the rising generation. In spite of these adverse and discouraging factors Vaidika Brahmanas continued to address themselves to the almost thankless task of memorising the vast Vedic literature, which could not have been preserved but for their devotion to duty. An age of Specialisation : We have already mentioned the new branches of study that came into prominence during the preceding period. The present age made its own contribution to the march of knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology, poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra (sacred and secular law), logic, and the different systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy. As the help of paper, printing and cheap books was not available for the preservation and propagation of knowledge, the age naturally emphasised on speciali- sation, which gave a great impetus to the development of the different branches of knowledge. The Ascendancy of Sanskrit : During the earlier centuries of this period, upto c. 300 A. D., some kings like the Sātavāhanas, the Ikshwākus and the Pallavas had championed the cause of Prakrit and directed that vernaculars alone should be used even in their official and public documents. As however the period advanced, the attraction of (Continued from the last page.) to Kālidāsa about their neglect as follows :—अस्माकं समग्रवेदविदामपि भोजः किमपि नार्पयति । भवादृशां हि यथेष्टं दत्ते । ततोऽस्माभिः कवित्व- विधानधियात्रागतम् । Kālidāsa then helps them. Bhojaprabandha, v. 86 and following.

152 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that language even in their harems¹. Prakrits ceased to be used for public documents and even the Buddhists and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders of their religions and began to compose works in Sanskrit. The revival of Sanskrit during this period produced results more or less similar to those brought about in Europe by the discovery and study of the classics during the time of the Renaissance. All the attention of the educated classes was devoted to the cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of vernaculars through which alone the masses could be approached. This eventually tended to confine educa- tion only to higher classes. Preliminary Sanskrit Course : The study of the different branches of knowledge that were flourishing in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, astronomy and mathematics. He then used to select one of these subjects for specialisation and devote about ten years to its study. Popularity of Grammar and Astrology : Among the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology were very popular, as attested to both by Yuan

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, p. 50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 153 Chwang and Alberuni. The demand for experts in grammar was as keen during this age as the demand for the teachers trained in English is today. Every school for higher education had to engage several grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject. The age believed in astrology and astrologers were in great demand throughout the country for preparing and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future events. The royal courts also used to engage the services of several astrologers. The Course in Sanskrit Literature. The students of this subject were naturally required first to complete their course in grammar and kosha (vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some famous authors like Kālidāsa, Bhartṛihari or Bāṇa. Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics, and students were expected not only to understand the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good poems imitating their style. In order to get a general knowledge of the culture of the race, they were also required to study the epics, the Purāṇas and traditional stories. They were further trained to be good debators; the ability to defend one's own position in learned assemblies and the capacity to compose a good poem in a very short time were regarded as the most important criteria of good scholarship. The Courses in Smritis and Puranas : Almost as popular as the courses in grammar and astrology were the courses in Purāṇas and Smṛitis whose hold over the popular mind during this age was almost as great as that of the Vedic literature in the earlier periods. Popular Hindu religion had greatly changed its complexion during this period and its

154 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch theories and practices could be ascertained only from Smṛitis and Purāṇas, which therefore had to be mastered even by the village priest. The courses in these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special study of select Sūtras, Smṛitis and Purāṇas. More emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the works concerned than on committing them to memory. Usually the students of Smṛitis and Purāṇas took the help of a manuscript when expounding their contents ; there was no prejudice against utilising the art of writing for preserving them. Courses in Logic and Philosophy : The age we are reviewing was reverberating with controversies among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the followers of Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā and Vedānta were contending for supremacy. It was but natural that these controversies should have given an impetus to the study of metaphysics. After getting a preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the students of the subject used to select one of the systems of philosophy for specialisation and master its most advanced and difficult works. The study of philo- sophy presupposed a study of logic during this period ; so students of philosophy used to devote considerable time to the study of logic also. The young graduate in philosophy was however expected not only to expound and defend his own system but also to attack and refute those of his opponents. The course therefore included a comparative study of the contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philo- sophers like Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkarāchārya and

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, pp. 49-50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 155 Buddhist scholars like Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu used to master the systems of their opponents as well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided over by Divākarasena, a Brahmana convert to Buddhism, students of Hinduism, Buddhism and Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jainism studied together side by side under the same principal.¹ Such an arrangement naturally presupposes a comparative study of the rival systems leading to the broadening of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of the average student of the institution. Courses for Laymen in Buddhist Colleges : For reasons already explained at p. 72, Buddhist monastic colleges began to take up the education of the laymen also from about the beginning of the Christian era. The courses prescribed for them were not radically different from those obtaining under sister institutions working under the aegis of Hinduism. Students started with a study of Sanskrit grammar and literature, which lasted for seven or eight years. They were also given some grounding in Pāli ; as pious Buddhists, they had to master some passages from the Pāli canon. At about the age of 15 or 16, their higher education commenced Those who wanted to specialise in Sanskrit literature Dharmaśāstra, astrology-cum-astronomy, medicine or works on polity and administration used to follow practically the same course as was in vogue in the Hindu colleges of the period. Those however who wanted to specialise in logic or philosophy used to select works by Buddhist authors on these subject like Hetuvidyā, Abhidharmaśāstra, Nyāyānusāraśāstra etc. The followers of the Hīnayāna school used to

1. Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

156 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. specialise in Tripiṭakas and other early works of orthodox Buddism, whereas those of the Mahāyāna school used to study the works of their famous scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti. Besides mastering their own works on philosophy, the Buddhist scholars used to study Hindu works on metaphysics as well. Courses for Monks : The curriculum prescribed for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different. It did not include any special study of secular sciences like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned principally with theological subjects. For ten years after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor, who used to initiate him in the study of Pāli and Sanskrit. When these languages were properly mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the Tripiṭakas,) was started. When this was over, relatively recent works on Buddhist religion and philosophy were mastered. Hindu systems of religion, logic and philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet the Hindu opponent on his own ground. It is interesting to note that Yuan Chwang, who had under- taken the arduous and perilous journey to India primarily for studying Buddhist scriptures, spent two fifth the period of his stay in India in studying Sanskrit works on Hinduism. The education of the novice did not terminate with his admission to the Order as a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu Naishṭhika Brahmachārin. Selection of Text-books : We have no definite information about the text-books prescribed for the various courses in different institutions during different

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 157 centuries. These must have gone on changing in course of time when better and more up-to-date books written by competent authorities became available. The selection of text books was usually governed by considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of learning like Pāṭalīputra or Benares¹, and if it was found to be a work of merit by that body, it received its imprimateur, which helped its acceptance and spread in provincial towns. It should be however noted that no pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to an author by his book being prescribed in several institutions; for there was no press and copyright in ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text book in the schools of a province however increased the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come across writers adopting rather questionable means to get their books accepted. Ugrabhūti, the teacher of king Anaṅgapāla of the Punjab (c. 1010–c. 1020) is said to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs of dirhams (= about Rs. 60,000) among the Pandits of Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their reluctance to accept his new work on grammar called Śishya-hitā-vṛitti². Such cases however were probably few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school were those in vogue at the centre where the principal and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus, Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written by authors of their own persuasion in the case of a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.

1. Pāṇini is reported to have come all the way to Pāṭalīputra from Śalātura in N. W. F. P, in order to get his famous grammar approved by the synod at that famous capital. Śaṅkarāchārya came to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimateur of the Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.
2. Sachau, Alberuni, Vol. I, pp. 185-6.

158 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. METHOD OF TEACHING AND STUDY General Conditions of the Times : Before des- cribing and commenting upon the method of teaching and study current in ancient India, it is necessary that we should familiarise ourselves with the general conditions of the age. In the beginning the art of writing was unknown, and even when it was invented, it was not utilised for preserving and transmitting the Vedic literature, which for several centuries was the main topic of study. It was further held as imperatively necessary that the canonical literature should be memorised in the most meticulous way ; there should be no possibility of the mistake even of a single accent. The service of the art of writing was no doubt utilised for preserving and teaching non-Vedic literature, but owing to the absence of paper and printing, books could be within the reach of the rich only. Being written on birch leaves, they were fragile as well as costly. The average student could therefore not have his own copy of the text-book ;¹ even the desire to possess one was regarded as a symptom of indolence.² Under such circum- stances, extensive use of a library was altogether impracticable, nor could the help of visual instruction through the help of charts and pictures be possible. Oral instruction was the only available method of teaching and it was the cheapest and the most accurate.

1. गीती शीघ्री शिरःकंपी तथा लिखितपाठकः । अनर्थज्ञोऽल्पकण्ठश्च षडेते पाठकाधमाः ॥ Pāṇinīya-śikshā, 32.
2. द्यूतं पुस्तकशुश्रूषा नाटकासक्तिरेव च । स्त्रियस्तन्द्री च निद्रा च विद्याविघ्नकराणि षट् ॥ Nārada in S. C. S. p. 52.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 159 Method of Teaching in the Vedic Schools : Education therefore was for a long time imparted through the oral lesson, without the medium of a book. This method persisted in the Vedic schools down to recent times. The teacher used to pronounce only two words of the Vedic stanza at a time, which the student was asked to recite with exact intonation and accent. The number of words was reduced to one, if the expression happened to be a compound one.¹ If the student had any difficulty in the matter, it was explained to him. When a whole verse was thus taught to one student, he was dis- missed and the same process was repeated with the next one. Necessarily every student used to receive individual attention under this system. The method of teaching was direct and personal and not even a text-book intervened between the teacher and the student. Method of Teaching in non-Vedic Schools : The above method of teaching was extensively followed in other branches of learning also, no doubt with suitable modifications, when it was deemed necessary that certain texts should be memorised by the student. Small portions of the text were recited and explained by the teacher to the students; when they had understood them, each one was required to commit them to memory. It was in this way that students used to learn important books like the grammar of Pāṇini, the dictionary of Amara, the law-book of Manu or the work on poetics by Mammaṭa, which had to be committed to memory. Books being both costly and fragile, there was no other efficient alternative method of study, if it was desired that

1. Ṛik-prātiśākhya, Paṭala, XV.