प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

194 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. distant centres of education like Taxila to receive education there more or less like commoners. But from about the 3rd century B. C. it became the usual practice to establish special schools for the education of the scions of the royal family.¹ Sons and wards of ministers and high officers of the state were also permitted to join these schools, as it was realised that suitable companions and mutual competition were neces- sary to ensure satisfactory results. The Royal School was usually located in the vicinity of the capital. It consisted of several spacious halls, each suitable for its special purpose. Gymnasium, swimming pools and extensive grounds for military exercises were provided. Experts were recruited from all over the country to teach different subjects. The curriculum included a study of the Vedas and philosophy, but naturally only such knowledge of these subjects was imparted as was necessary for general culture. Special attention was paid to the study of history, economics, politics, administration, and civil and criminal law. Lectures on these subjects were delivered usually in the afternoon, the morning time being devoted to the athletic and military exercises. Princes were expected to be experts in the use of different arms like the sword, the lance and the bow and arrow. Tournaments and hunting parties were often organised to test their skill. Fine arts like music and painting were also taught. Students in these royal schools used to stay in the boarding houses ; their parents used to go there occasionally to see them and find out how they were progressing. The school course terminated usually at the end of the 16th year, when princes were allowed to marry. Though after this time, they would usually leave the boarding and begin to stay in the palace with their

1. Arthas'âstra, I, Kâdambarī, p. 149,

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 195 family, their education would not terminate. Training in actual administration would begin after this period and last for about seven or eight years. At the age of 24 the education would become fully complete and princes were then regarded as eligible to become heir- apparents. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION General Condition of Commerce :—In the Vedic age, the Aryans had a greater liking for the sword than for the sclaes ; Paṇis who were then controlling commerce are contemptuously spoken of in the Vedas. Gradually however when there remained no fresh lands to conquer and acquire, the Aryans must have turned to commerce. There was considerable inter-provincial and foreign trade going on in the Mauryan period. The maritime activity of ancient India was considerable, and the trade with Rome was very profitable to India during the early centuries of the Christian era. Much of it however was in the hands of Dravidians. Scope of Commercial Education: We can get some idea of the scope and nature of commercial education from the training prescribed for the Vaishya caste by Manu,¹ and the qualifications required by Kauṭilya in the superintendent of commere.³ First of all a knowledge of the varieties in quality of the articles to be dealt with was imparted. Then came commercial geography, for the trader was expected to know the places where the different articles were produced and the nature of the route by which they had to be imported. Customs barriers in the period we are discussing were numerous, and profits often depended on selecting a route where the customs

1. IX, 381-882. 2. II, 16.

196 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. duties were relatively light. The needs of the people of the various localities were to be carefully studied with a view to find out possible markets. A knowledge of different places and occasions of fares and pilgrimages was also imparted as it was necssary in this connection. The knowledge of the relative prices of different articles in different provinces and countries was also regarded as essential. Students were also taught the exchange value of articles and also of different currencies in various provinces and countries. Those who intended to deal with inter-provincial or inter-national trade were also given a working knowledge of the necessary languages. Principles of banking also formed part of the course. It is difficult to determine the percentage of persons in the trading community who received so wide an education. In the hereditary trading families of high status, all this education may have been a reality ; much of it must have been unconsciously picked up by the youths in the family shops. In the case of petty merchants the extent of the education was probably determined by the needs of the situation. Agencies of Education :—During the first millen- nium of the Christian era, most of the trades in the country had formed very efficient guilds. One of them is known to have maintained an Arts college in Karna- tak during the 12th century A.D.¹ It is however strange to find that the commercial guilds should not have organised and managed commercial schools and colleges. The reason however is not far to seek. Down to the 5th century A.D. organised educational institutions did not exist even for literary courses. When they became fairly common in the country a 1 I.A., Vol. VIII, p. 195.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 197 few centuries later, commercial classes did not feel it necessary to copy their example. By this time the caste system had become hereditary and the training in different trades and industries was usually imparted in the family itself by the elders. Where there were no elders in the family to train its children, they were usually attached as apprentices to some neighbouring trader or artisan. This apprenticeship system, which will be soon described, rendered any regular schools of the modern type unnecessary. TRAINING IN ARTS AND CRAFTS. **Introduction :—**We shall now consider the pro- blems connected with the training of students in arts and handicrafts like sculpture, artchitecture, painting, carpentry, smithy, agriculture, etc. Our sources of information are scanty, because neither Smṛitis, which have written about education, nor foreign pilgrims like Yuan Chwang and I-tsing who often throw consider- able light on educational conditions, were interested in the problems connected with the training in arts and handicrafts. Attitude towards Arts and Crafts : Early Period :— It will be convenient at the outset to consider the general attitude of society towards arts and crafts. In the early period they were held in high esteem. Agriculture was the general profession for the average Aryan. There are prayers both in the Ṛigveda and the Atharvaveda for success in various agricultural processes and operations. It was not therefore a profession held in low esteem as in later times. The carpenter was so impor- tant a member of the Vedic society that the chief of his guild was included among the twelve courtiers to whose houses the king had to repair in person for offering oblations at the time of his coronation. Ṛibhus,

198 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. originally human beings, were deified as a reward for their extraordinary skill in manual arts. The same was the case with Aśvins, who though originally human princes, were later raised to the pantheon on account of their medical skill. Society's Attitude In later Days : In later times however the attitude of society changed, primarily due to the development of the rigid caste system. The elevation of the Brahmanas and Ksha- triyas was at the cost of the Vaishyas and Shudras, who generally used to follow manual arts and handi- crafts. As the status of the Vaishyas and Shudras declined, the angle of vision to look at their usual professions also changed. Manual arts and crafts began to be held in low esteem. Carpenters and doctors for example began to be regarded as children of intercaste unions, which were disapproved by the contemporary orthodox opinion. All this resulted in a gradual boycott by Brahmanas and Kshatriyas of manual arts and crafts. As the best intellect of the community would not condescend to help their progress, the general level of skill began to decline both in fine and useful arts from about the 8th century A. D. Apprenticeship System : The training in fine and useful arts¹ was usually given by the apprentice- ship system under which the student agreed to work

1. विज्ञानमुच्यते शिल्पं हेमकुप्यादिसंस्थितिः । नृत्यादिकं च तच्छिक्षन्कुर्यात्कर्म गुरोर्गृहे ॥ बृहस्पति in विवादरत्नाकर, p. 141. Devanabhaṭṭa, while commenting on this observes कंकणकटका- दिनिर्माणविषयं नृत्यं गीतादिकरणविषयं चकारात्स्तंभकुंभादिरचनाविषयं च विज्ञानं शिल्पमुच्यते ।

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 199 under his teacher for an agreed number of years. During this period the teacher was to afford free boarding and lodging to his apprentice. Our authorities do not state the duration of the agreement, but it must have varied with different crafts. It was usually longer than the period required to master the craft, because the teacher was expected to be compensated for the trouble in teaching and the expenses in feeding the apprentice from the wages he would earn as a fully trained worker during the remaining period of his indenture. The apprentice could not back out of the agreement, if the teacher was not remiss in his duties. If he deserted his teacher without a sufficient cause, he was brought back and compelled to stay, learn and work.¹ The neglect of the training of the apprentice and the assignment to him of

1. Cf स्वशिल्पमिच्छन्नाहर्तु बान्धवानामनुज्ञया । आचार्यस्य वसेदन्ते कृत्वा कालं सुनिश्चितम् ॥ १७ ॥ आचार्यः शिक्षयेदेनं स्वगृहे दत्तभोजनम् । न चान्यत्कारयेत्कर्म पुत्रवच्चैनमाचरेत् ॥ १८ ॥ शिक्षयन्तमदुष्टं य आचार्यं संपरित्यजेत् । बलाद्वासयितव्यस्स्याद्वधबन्धौ च सोर्हति ॥ १९ ॥ शिक्षितोपि कृतं कालमन्तेवासी समाप्नुयात् । तत्र कर्म च यत्कुर्यादाचार्यस्यैव तत्फलम् ॥ २० ॥ गृहीतशिल्पः समये कृत्वाचार्यप्रदक्षिणाम् । शक्तितश्चानुमान्यैनमन्तेवासी निवर्तते ॥ २१ ॥ वेतनं वा यदि कृतं ज्ञात्वा शिष्यस्य कौशलम् । अन्तेवासी समादद्यान्न चान्यस्य गृहे वसेत् ॥ २२ ॥ नारदस्मृति, शुश्रूषाभ्युपगमप्रकरणम् ।

200 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. work unconnected with his craft¹ were regarded as sufficient causes to nullify the agreement and permit the apprentice to leave his teacher. At the end of the agreed period, the student could leave his teacher after offering him a suitable honorarium. If however the teacher offered him suitable wages, he was expected to serve him in preference to a stranger.² Workshop Atmosphere during Training:—Our authorities lay down that the apprentice should live in his teacher's house or factory for all the 24 hours. This was to ensure a thorough acquaintance with and grounding in the different processes of the craft that could be picked up only by an intimate and prolonged contact with the various stages of the manufacturing processes. Students were also trained to make their own tools in order to ensure perfect mastery of the profession. A painter, for example, made his own brushes from out of roots or fibres, hair of squirrels or awns of various grasses. He did not rely on colours prepared by others, but knew how to make them himself. A repousser was taught to make tools suitable for the work in hand. Painter's Training as an Illustration :—In order to give an idea of the various stages of the training of

1. यस्तु न ग्राहयेच्छिल्पं कर्माण्यन्यानि कारयेत् । प्राप्नुयात्साहसं पूर्वं तस्माच्छिष्यो निवर्तते । Kātyāyana in Aparārka on Yāj. II, 84.
2. There is some resemblance between the Indian apprenticeship system outlined above and the system prevailing in medieval Europe. In Europe too the apprentice had to spend the earlier part of his indenture period learning his craft and getting no wages. When he had learnt his art, he would become a journeyman, but he could undertake no work except through and for the benefit of his master. At the end of the agreed period, he was at liberty to start his own business. In Europe, guilds would permit an artisan to take only one student for training; we do not know whether there were similar restric- tions in ancient India. Graves, A history of Education, Vol. II, p. 97.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 201 the apprentice, we shall give here the different stages in the training of the painter. The apprentice was first given a practice in drawing lines and curves. When the hand, eye and memory were trained in the use of fundamental curves in this fashion, traditional ornaments and decorative motifs were taught. Then followed a training in the drawing of the mythical animals and designs with men and beasts in them. The master would then take his apprentice to assist him in his work at the temple. At first the student would help the teacher only in grinding colours, then in priming the surfaces, then in applying ground colours and finally in filling the outlines sketched by his master. Experience was thus given in practical work. In the course of time when the teacher was satisfied about the sincerity, devotion and ability of the apprentice, he would impart the trade secrets. Throughout the course the technique of the profession was taught in relation to real things and problems.¹ **Theoretical and Moral Training :—**Nor was theo- retical and moral training neglected. A working knowledge of Sanskrit was imparted to advanced workers in sculpture, painting and architecture, as most of the theoretical works on the subjects were written in that language. A knowledge of Purāṇas and works on iconography was necessary both for the sculptor and the painter in order to chisel or paint properly the various themes of the Pauranic history and mythology. Architects and engineers used to receive the necessary grounding in mathematics also. The apprentice was always asked to remember that he was expected to be a pious and honest person abiding by the rules prescribed for the artists by sacred texts 1, Coomaraswami, The Indian Craftsman, pp. 88-90.

202 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.. and tradition. The doctor was to remember that he was to save his patient even at the cost of his own life, if necessary. Efficiency of Training : The training under the above apprenticeship system was fairly efficient, for it was both theoretical and practical and given in the workshop itself. It helped to raise the general level of the skill and workmanship in several arts and crafts. Indian artisans took no time in manufacturing scrapers and sponges that they first saw being used by Greek invaders. Fine thread and wool were used to manufacture sponges and they were then dyed, so that they looked similar to Greek articles. The efficiency of the Punjab ship-builders may be inferred from the fact that they could supply to Alexander the Great a huge fleet, probably of not less than 1,000 boats, in about three months' time. The skill in mining, metallurgy, smelting and welding attained by ancient Indians was of a high order; experts are still wondering how the composition of the famous Iron Pillar near Kutub Minar at Delhi could be made so flawless by the metallurgists of Chandragupta II (c. 375-413 A. D.) as to prevent its rusting in spite of its being exposed to rain and sunshine for more than fifteen centuries. In the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, we find a fairly accurate knowledge of the nature of the ores of gold, silver, copper, etc., and of the processes by which they were purified (II, 12-3). The weaving industry could command the markets of the greater part of the Old World before it was crushed by the advent of the steam engine in the 19th century. In sculpture we find a continuous progress from c. 200 B. C. and a readiness to learn even from the foreigner. Paintings as illustrated at Ajanta show a high development of the art. The beautiful cave temples of western India

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 203. and the graceful as well as huge shrines of Orissa and South India show that the Indian architect could solve a number of difficulties, which we think it hardly possible to overcome except with the help of the modern machinary. Was Professional Education narrow ? : Prima facie the professional education as given by the apprenticeship system seems to be narrow ; the student seems to have been taught only what the tradition and works of his profession had to teach. There is, however, some historical evidence to show that many of the artists and artisans of the age used to possess a good amount of cultural and literary education as well. Thus some of the members of the weavers' guilds at Daśapura (in Malva) used to take active interest in astronomy and folklore during the 5th century A. D. There is no evidence to prove or disprove that what was true of this guild at Mandsore was true of the average artisan of the period. The conclusion may, however, be hazarded that down to the 8th or the 9th century A. D. artisans of the highest grade used to receive a fair amount of liberal education. Later on owing to the decline of literacy and the low esteem in which arts and handi- crafts began to be held, there was a setback and artisans began to blindly follow the processes that were handed down to them by tradition.

Chapter IX FEMALE EDUCATION Eligibility of women for sacrifices necessitates their Upanayana and helps their education—Two classes of girl-students—Attainments of lady scholars in the early period—Early Buddhism helps female education—Arrangements for teaching girl students—Was there coeducation ? Deterioration of women's religious status after c. 200 B. C. retards their education— So does the lowering of the marriage age—Lady authors of the 1st millennium A. D.—They belonged to cultured families—Female education in ordinary families—Buddhism ceases to help it—Education of princesses and Kshatriya girls—Female education and economic independence—Female education in medieval times. SECTION I Female Education before c. 200 B. C. **A strange Phenomenon :—**The history of the most of the known civilisations shows that the further back we go into antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found to be the general position of women. Hindu civilisation is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising exception to the general rule. The further back we go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of women in more spheres than one. And the field. of education is most noteworthy among them. We can however understand this strange phenomenon when we remember that for a long time education in ancient India meant Vedic education, and that it had to be necessarily imparted to all who were expected to take part in Vedic sacrifices. irrespective of their sex. Women eligible for Vedic Sacrifices : There is ample and convincing evidence to show that women were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 205 sacrifices enjoined in it down to about 200 B. C. This need not surprise us, for some of the hymns of the Ṛigveda are the compositions of poetesses. Even the orthodox tradition admits that the Ṛigvedic collection contains hymns composed by twenty different poetesses. Viśvavārā, Sikatā Nivāvarī, Ghoshā, Romaśā, Lopāmudrā, Apālā and Urvaśī are the names of some of them. Man could perform the Vedic sacrifices only if he had his wife by his side ;¹ both had to undergo a special initiation² on the occasion and take equally active part in its procedure.³ Down to the end of the Mauryan period, the housewife was expected to offer oblations in the household (grihya) fire unaided by the husband, normally in the evening and sometimes in the morning also.⁴ In the srastarārohaṇa ritual of the Agrahāyaṇa ceremony, the wife used to recite a number of Vedic hymns⁵ and the harvest sacrifices could be performed by women alone, 'because such was the long standing custom'.⁶ From the Rāmāyaṇa we learn that Kauśalyā was by herself alone performing a sacrifice on the morning of her son's proposed installation as an heir-apparent ;⁷ 1 अयज्ञियो वा एष योऽपत्नीकः । S. Br., V. 1. 6-10 2 T. Br. III. 3. 3 3 या दंपती सुमनसा सुनुत आ च धावतः । देवासो नित्ययाशिरा । R. V., VIII. 31 4 Go. Gr. S., 1. 3. The term patnī denotes the special connec- tion of the wife with her husband's sacrifices ; cf. पत्युर्नो यज्ञसंयोगे । Paṇini, IV. 1. 33 5 P. G. S., III. 2. See the commentary of Harihara also. 6 स्त्रियश्चोपयजेरन्नाचरितत्वात् । P. G. S., II. 20. 7 सा क्षौमवसना हृष्टा नित्यं व्रतपरायणा । अग्निं जुहोति स्म तदा मंत्रवित्कृतमंगला ॥ II. 20. 15.

206 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. the same was the case with Tārā when her husband Vālī was about to leave the palace to meet Sugrīva in the fateful encounter.¹ It is interesting to note that both these ladies are expressly described by the epic as mantravid, i. e. well grounded in the Vedic literature. We need not then wonder if we find Sītā also offering her Vedic prayer during the days of her captivity in Laṅkā.² Kuntī, the mother of Pāṇḍavas, was well- versed in the Mantras of the Atharvaveda (Mbh., III. 305. 20). Upanayana of Girls : No one can recite Vedic prayers or offer Vedic sacrifices without having under- gone the Vedic initiation (Upanayana). It is, therefore, but natural that in the early period the Upanayana of girls should have been as common as that of boys. There is ample evidence to show that such was the case. The Atharvaveda (XI. 5. 18) expressly refers to maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya discipline³ and the Sūtra works of the 5th century B. C. supply interesting details in its connection. Even Manu includes Upanayana among the saṁskāras (rituals) obligatory for girls (II. 66). After about the beginning of the Christian era, girls' Upanayana went out of vogue, but Smṛiti writers of even the 8th century A. D. like Yama admit its prevalence in the earlier age.⁴ ¹ ततः स्वस्त्ययनं कृत्वा मंत्रविद्विजयैषिणी । IV. 16. 12. ² संध्याकालमनाः श्यामा ध्रुवमेष्यति जानकी । नदीं चेमां शुभजलां संध्यार्थं वरवर्णिनी ॥ V. 15. 48. ³ ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । XI. 5. 18. ⁴ Cf. पुराकल्पे तु नारीणां मौञ्जीबन्धनमिष्यते । अध्यापनं च वेदानां सावित्रीवचनं तथा ॥ पिता पितृव्यो भ्राता वा नैनामध्यापयेत्परः । स्वगृहे चैव कन्याया भैक्षचर्या विधीयते ॥

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 207 Two Classes of Girl Students :—There were no child marriages in the Vedic period ; as a rule however girls could not remain unmarried as long as boys as they had to be younger than their spouses. Majority of them used to get married at the age of 16 or 17, and only a few would prosecute their studies after that age. Girls of the former class were called Sadyovadhūs, and of the latter class Brahmvādinīs. The education of the Sadyovadhūs comprised the study of important Vedic hymns necessary for usual prayers and sacrifices. Music and dancing were also taught to them ; partiality of women to these arts is often referred to in the Vedic literature.¹ Brahmavādinīs used to marry after their education was over ; some of them like Vedavatī, a daughter of sage Kuśadhvaja, would not marry at all (Rām., VII. 17). Attainments of Lady Scholars :—The attainments of lady scholars, who remained unmarried for a longer time, were naturally wider and more varied. In the Vedic age, they used to acquire thorough mastery in the Vedic literature and even compose poems, some of which have been honoured by their inclusion in the sacred canon. When the Vedic lore and sacrifices became complex, a new branch of study, called Mīmānsā, came to be developed in their connection. Though this was a subject, drier than mathematics, we find lady scholars taking keen interest in it. Kāśakṛitsnin had composed a work on Mīmānsā called Kāśakṛitsnī after him ; lady students who used to specialise in it, were known as Kāśakṛitsnā.² If lady specialists in a technical

1. S. Br., III. 2. 4. 6 observes that women can be easily won over by one who can sing and dance. Appreriation of music and dan- cing of course presupposes a training in them. 2 एवमपि काशकृत्स्निना प्रोक्ता मीमांसा काशकृत्स्नी । काशकृत्स्नी- मधीते काशकृत्स्ना ब्राह्मणी । On IV, 1, 14 ; 3, 155.

208 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.. science like Mīmāṁsā were so numerous as to necessitate the coining of a new special term to denote them, we can reasonably conclude that the number of women who used to receive general literary and cultural education must have been fairly large. When in the course of time the study of philosophy became popular in the Upanishadic age, women began to take keen interest in that subject also. Such was the case with Yājñavalkya's wife Maitreyī; she was more interested in studying deeper problems of philosophy than in wearing costly jewels and apparels.¹ In the philo- sophical tournament held during the sacrificial session performed under the auspices of king Janaka, it is interesting to note that the subtlest philosophical question was asked by the lady philosopher Gārgī Vāchaknavī.² The question was so subtle and esoteric in character that Yājñavalkya refused to discuss it in public. The keen reasoning and subtle cross-exami- nation of Yājñavalkya by Gārgī shows that she was a dialectician and philosopher of a high order. Ātreyī of the Uttara-Rāma-charit was another lady, who was studying Vedānta under Vālmīki and Agastya.³ Some lady scholars of the age like Sulabhā, Vaḍavā, Prāthiteyī, Maitreyī, and Gārgī seem to have made real contribution to the advancement of knowledge, for they enjoy the rare privilege of being included among the galaxy of distinguished scholars, to whom a daily tribute of gratitude was to be given by a 1 Br. Up., II, 4; IV, 5. Cf.—सा होवाच मैत्रेयी। येनाहं नामृता स्याम् किं तेनाहं कुर्यामिति । 2 अनतिप्रश्न्यां वै देवतामतिपृच्छसि । Ibid. III, 6, 1. 3 तेभ्योऽधिगन्तुं निगमान्तविद्यां वाल्मीकिपार्श्वादिह संचरामि । Act II.

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 209 grateful posterity at the time of the daily prayer (Brahmayajña).¹ Effect of Buddhism on Female Education : The eventual permission, which the Buddha accorded to the admission of women to his Church, gave an impetus to the spread of education and philosophy among the ladies of the aristocratic and commercial communities. Like Brahmavādinīs, several ladies in Buddhist families also used to lead a life of celibacy, with the aim of understanding and following the eternal truths of religion and philosophy. Some of them even went outside India to countries like Ceylon and became famous there as teachers of the holy scriptures. Among the authoresses of the Therī-gāthā, who were believed to have attained salvation, 32 were unmarried women and 18 married ones. Amongst the former, Subhā, Anopamā and Sumedhā belonged to very rich families, and are said to have been wooed by princes and rich merchants ² When so large a percentage of girls was leading a life of celibacy in pursuit of religion and philosophy, it is but natural that the general average of intelligence and educatioh among them must have been fairly high. How Girls were educated : Let us now try to find out the agencies for imparting female education during this period. We have already seen that for a long time family was the only educational institution, and even boys used to receive education only from their fathers, uncles or other elders. The same naturally was the case with girls. When however later Smṛitis like Yama³ lay down that none but 1 As'. G. S., III. 4. 4.; S'a. G. S., IV. 10. 3. 2 Horner, Women under Primitive Buddhism, Chap. II. 3 पिता पितृव्यो भ्राता वा नैनामध्यापयेत् परः । 14

210 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. near relations should teach girl students, they are probably referring to a state of affairs current by about the beginning of the Christian era; for there is evidence to show that such was not the case in the earlier period. When a large number of women were receiving higher education and were making their own contributions to the march of knowledge, it is but natural to suppose that some of them must have followed the profession of teaching. And the presence of the terms Upādhyāyā and Upādhyāyānī in Sanskrit language supports this conjecture. The latter of these words is a courtesy title given to the wife of a teacher, who may or may not be educated. The former, however, denotes a lady, who was herself a teacher. That a special term should have been coined to denote lady teachers in order to distinguish them from wives of teachers would show that their number in society could not have been small. We must note in this connection that there was no Purdah custom in Hindu society down to the 12th century, and so there was no difficulty for women in taking to the teaching profession. Lady teachers may probably have confined themselves to the teaching of girl students, though some may have taught boys also. Pāṇini refers to boarding houses for lady-students, chhātrīśālās², and these probably were under the superintendence of Upādhyāyās or lady teachers, who had made teaching their profession. Unfortunately we have no clear and sufficient evidence about the activities of lady teachers and the management of girls' boardings. 1 उपेत्याधीयते अस्याः सा उपाध्याया । Patañjali on III. 322. 2 छात्र्यादयः शालायाम् । VI. 2. 86.

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 211 Was there co-education ? The modern reader would be anxious to know whether co-education prevailed in the past. Our sources however throw but dim light on the subject. From the Mālatīmādhava of Bhavabhūti, written in the 8th century A. D., we learn that the nun Kāmandakī was educated along with Bhūrivasu and Devarāta at a famous centre of education.¹ This would show that if not in Bhava- bhūti's time, at least some centuries earlier, sometimes boys and girls were educated together while receiving higher education. In the Uttara-Rāma-charit also (of the same author) we find Ātreyī receiving her education along with Kuśa and Lava (Act II). The stories of Kahoda and Sujātā and Ruru and Pramadvarā, narrated in Purāṇas, would also point to co-education. They would further show that at a time when girls were being married at an advanced age and receiving co-education, sometimes love- marriages used to take place as a consequence of it. When however there were competent lady teachers, parents may have preferred to send their daughters to read under them ; but when they were not available, they may have sent their wards to read under male teachers, and necessarily along with male students. In an age, which looked upon love marriages as nothing abnormal,² co-education need not have frightened the parents. What percentage of girls ¹ अयि किं न वेत्सि यदेकत्र नो विद्यापरिग्रहाय नानादिगन्तवासिनां साहचर्यमासीत् । Act I. ² सुखत्वादबहुक्लेशादपि चावरणादिह । अनुरागात्मकत्वाच्च गांधर्वः प्रवरो मतः । Kāmasūtra, III. 5. 30 गांधर्वमप्येके प्रशंसंति सर्वेषां स्नेहानुगतत्वात् । B. D. S., I. 11-13. 7

212 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. received co-education is a question which we cannot answer in the present state of our knowledge. It could not however have been very large. Extent of Female Education : It is not easy to determine the extent of female education during the period we are reviewing here. Vedic literature has preserved rituals to be performed by parents anxious for the birth of scholarly daughters¹; it would therefore follow that many parents must have been anxious that their daughters should become cultured and accom- plished ladies. Education of girls could not have been neglected by the ordinary well-to-do father. Upa- nayana ritual was also obligatory for girls, and this must have ensured the imparting of a certain amount of Vedic and literary education to the girls of all the Aryan classes. We may therefore presume that as long as Upanayana ritual was performed in the case of girls, and the custom of child marriage had not taken root in society, girls of well-to-do families must be receiving fairly good education. Such continued to be the case down to c. 500 B. C. SECTION II. FEMALE EDUCATION FROM c. 200 B.C. TO c. 1200 A.D. Deterioration in religious Status : Female educa- tion received a great setback during this period primarily owing to the deterioration of the religious status of women. During the earlier period, Upanayana ceremony was as much obligatory for girls as it was ¹ अथ य इच्छेद्दुहिता मे पंडिता जायेत सर्वमायुरियादिति तिलौदनं पाचयित्वा सर्पिष्मन्तमश्नीयाताम् । Br. Up., VI, 4. 17.

IX] FEMALE EDUCATION 213 for boys. We have already seen how this ensured a certain amount of higher education to every Aryan girl. During the period we are reviewing, however, Upanayana began to be gradually prohibited to girls. By about 500 B. C. it had already become a mere formality, not followed by any serious course of Vedic education.¹ The Manusmriti, which was composed at about 200 B. C., goes a step further and declares that girls' Upanayana should be performed without the recitation of Vedic Mantras.² But immediately in the next verse it is stated that it is really the marriage ritual of girls which corresponds to the Upanayana ritual of boys³. It is therefore clear that Upanayana of girls, even as a mere formality, was dying down by the beginning of the Christian era. Yājñavalkya (200 A. D.) therefore takes the logical step of prohibiting Upanayana altogether in the case of girls (I. 13), and all later Smṛiti-writers follow his lead, though some of them like Yama admit that once upon a time girls used to have the privilege of Upanayana and Vedic studies. The discontinuance of Upanayana was disastrous to the religious status of women; they were declared to be of the same status as that of the Shudras⁴ and unfit to recite Vedic Mantras and

1. तत्र ब्रह्मवादिनीनामग्नीन्धनं वेदाध्ययनं स्वगृहे च भैक्षचर्या । सद्योवधूंनां तूपस्थिते विवाहे कथंचिदुपनयनमात्रं कृत्वा विवाहः कार्यः । Hārīta quoted in V. M. S., p. 402; S. C. S., p. 62.
2. अमंत्रिका तु कार्येयं स्त्रीणामानृदशेषतः । II. 66. Cf. also नास्ति स्त्रीणां क्रिया मंत्रैरिति धर्मे व्यवस्थितिः । IX. 18.
3. वैवाहिको विधिः स्त्रीणां संस्कारो वैदिको मतः । पतिसेवा गुरौ वासो गृहार्थोऽग्निपरिक्रिया ॥ II. 67.
4. वदन्ति केचिन्मुनयः स्त्रीणां शूद्रसमानताम् । Purāṇāntara in V. M. Paribhāshā, p. 40.