प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

282 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. surely reach his goal. For, divine help and co-operation were enlisted on his behalf; even death could not touch him if he properly followed the rules of his order (S. Br., XI. 2. 6; B. D. S., I. 3). His personality will develop like that of Indra and his intelligence will glow up like the refulgent flame of God Fire. He will find nothing relating to his literary goal impossible if he worked with faith, assiduousness and determination. What better ideas can be conveyed to a young scholar at the beginning of his education? SECTION C RITUALS DURING THE COLLEGE SESSION Introduction :—Rituals were naturally prescribed at the beginning and at the end of the annual school session, as they were at the beginning and at the end of the educational course. In pre-historic times the annual session of schools and colleges began soon after the commencement of the rainy season. when the sowing operations were over and crops had began to sprout. This usually happened by the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa¹ (August); so the ritual of Chhandasām- upākarman i. e. of 'gathering the Vedic knowledge', was performed on that day. Later on it began to be described as Śrāvaṇī². In pre-historic times Vedic literature was not extensive; so a college term of

1. The full moon days of Āshāḍha, Śrāvaṇa and Bhādrapada are mentioned by different authorities as appropriate days for Upākarma. (Cf. Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 2-3; Kh. Gr. S., III, 2, 14; Hi. Gr. S., II, 18, 1). Rainy season is receding back every century and it commences in different months in different provinces of India. Hence this divergence about the appropriate season for Upākarma.
2. Śrāvaṇī is a relatively modern name for the ritual. In early times it denoted the Nāga worship ritual performed on the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa; when this ritual went out of vogue, the name was transferred to the Chhandasām-Upākarma ritual, because that too was usually performed on the same day.

I, C] UPĀKARMA RITUAL 283 about five or six months was found to be sufficient for mastering it. The ritual of Chhandasām-utsarjana, i. e. the cessation of Vedic studies, was therefore performed on the full moon day of Pausha or Māgha (February- March). In later times when the Vedic literature became very extensive, and more branches of learning were developed like grammar, philology, logic, philosophy and Dharmaśāstra, the duration of the annual term was extended over practically the whole year. Curiously enough, owing to the force of the established tradition, the Utsarjana ceremony still continued to be performed in February or March, though the college studies did not cease at that time. At present the ritual is not performed at its proper time but combined with the Upākarma ritual. This practice goes back to medieval times. **Upakarma or Sravani; its Significance :—**The statement that Śrāvaṇī denotes a ritual performed at the beginning of the college session may appear fanciful to the modern Hindu, who is accustomed to associate it with the annual replacement of the sacred thread, but there is ample and clear evidence to justify it. Our authorities declare that the ritual was to be performed only by the teacher along with his students when they had reassembled at the beginning of the session¹. It was believed that the presiding teacher would get in the course of time as many students as was the number of sesasums offered as oblations in this ritual²; some texts lay down special formulas to be

1. अध्येष्यमाणाः अध्याप्यैरन्वारब्ध..........। Āś. Gr. S., 3.4.10. समारब्धेष्वन्तेवासिषु.... ...उपाकर्म कुर्वीत । सहान्तेवासिभिः ग्रामादभिनिष्क्रम्य........उत्सर्जनविधिः । Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 3. ff.
2. स यावन्तं गणमिच्छेत्तावन्तस्तिलानातर्थफलेन जुहुयात् । P. Gr. S., II. 10.

284 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. performed by teachers ambitious to have a large number of scholars¹. In some places there was the custom requiring the teacher to give a feast to his students on the day of Śrāvaṇī². It would thus be clear that the ritual of Śrāvaṇī was originally confined only to teachers and students and was performed on the opening day of the annual session. Prevention of Wastage in Education :—Later on, however, it came to be prescribed for the whole community primarily to prevent wastage in education. We are all aware how a large number of students lose their study habits and forget a good deal of what they had learnt in their schools and colleges, when they settle down as householders pursuing their own professions. The same thing happened in the past. It was however regarded as a serious disaster in ancient times, as the modern facilities of books and libraries were then non-existent. In the course of time there- fore educationalists began to feel that steps must be taken to ensure that even householders would set apart some time in the year for revising their studies. Some of them, like Śvetaketu, advocated that they should be asked to spend two months every year in their old colleges for this purpose. The majority however felt that it is impracticable to suggest to householders that they should give up their professions for two months every year in order to keep themselves in touch with their studies³. They therefore proposed that the

1. अन्तेवासिनां योगमिच्छञ्जपं जपति....। Vā. Gr. S., 7.
2. सब्रह्मचारिणश्च उपसमेतान्भोजयेदाचार्यः J. Gr. S., I. 14.
3. निवेशे वृत्ते संवत्सरे द्वौ द्वौ मासौ समाहितः आचार्यकुले वसेद्भूयः श्रुतमिच्छन्निति श्वेतकेतुः । एतेन ह्यहं योगेन भूयः पूर्वस्माच्छ्रुतमकरव- मिति । तच्छास्त्रैर्विप्रतिषिद्धम् । निवेशे हि वृत्ते नैयमिकानि श्रूयन्ते । Ā. D. S., I. 1. 2. 12.

I, C] UPĀKARMA RITUAL 285. monsoon time should be devoted to the task of revising their studies. They could easily do this at home, if they only would set apart a little time for the work every day. It was therefore decided to lay it down that householders also should join the students in the Srāvaṇī ritual and take a vow to revise their studies. Students performing the Śrāvaṇī were to prosecute their studies at their schools and colleges; householders taking part in it were to revise them at home, devoting special time for the purpose and observing the rules of the student-life as far as practicable¹. **Sravani Ritual; Its Critical Survey :—**When it is remembered that Śrāvaṇī was a ritual performed by teachers and students at the beginning of the college session, and by others at the onset of the monsoon when the annual period of revision of studies commenced, we can well anticipate its nature and details. The ritual differed with different Vedic schools,² but there is one central idea common to them all, viz., on the opening day, Vedic and sacrificial deities should be offered oblations, presiding deities over intellect, memory and imagination should be propitiated, and a tribute of gratefulness should be

1. न मांसमश्रीयान्न श्राद्धम्। न लोमानि संहारयेत्। न स्त्रियमुपेयादृ तौ जायामुपेयात्। J. Gr. S., Upākarma section. 2 Thus the followers of the Rigveda used to recite the opening and concluding verses of each of the ten books of their Veda. The followers of the Yajurveda used to offer oblations to all the Vedas, Itihāsa and Purāṇa and pay tribute to the celebrated scholars of their own school like Kṛishṇa Dvaipāyana, Vaiśampāyana, and Tittiri (the authors of the Veda), Ātreya, the author of the Pada-pāṭha, Kauṇḍinya, the vṛittikāra, Baudhāyana, the pravachanakāra, Āpastamba the Sūtrakāra and to other celebrities like Satyāshāḍha, Hiraṇyakeśin, Vājasaneya, Yājñavalkya, Bhāradvāja and Agniveśya [Bau. Gr. S., III. 1]. The followers of the Sāmaveda invoked the memory of their own doctors like Jaimini, Tālavakāra, Râṇāyani, Bhāguri, etc.

286 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. paid to the intellectual giants of the past, who have enriched the national literature. It was a very happy idea indeed to remind the students of the deep debt of gratitude they all owed to the literary celebrities of the past on the very opening day of the session. When they paid tribute to them, their ambition was naturally fired into imitating their glorious example. They thus commenced their annual studies with zest, vigour and ambition, hoping one day to equal the ancients in their achievements. When the ritual was extended to householders in later times, it reminded them of their duty to be up-to-date in their own branches of learning. It is a pity indeed that the modern educational system has not got a ceremony of similar import. Sravani and the Sacred Thread :—The critical reader may now naturally enquire as to the causes that have led to the close association of Śrāvaṇī with the change of the sacred thread. The renewal of the sacred thread was a minor element in the ritual ; most of our authorities do not even refer to it. At the time of most of the Vratas (vows) and Sanskāras, a new sacred thread, staff, girdle, etc., were to be worn by students. Śrāvaṇī was no exception ; on this occasion also they discarded their old sacred threads, staffs, girdles, etc., and substituted them by new ones,—a pro- cedure somewhat similar to that of the modern student, who usually gets new clothes prepared when he leaves home for joining his college. By a strange irony of fate, the most insignificant element in this ritual has now assumed an altogether disproportionate importance and its real nature and significance have been forgotten altogether. Utsarjana Ritual : This was performed at the end of the college term sometime in February or March.

I, D] SAMĀVARTANA RITUAL 287 The procedure was more or less the same as that on the opening day. Respectful homage was once more paid to the Vedic deities, mental and intellectual powers and the literary giants of the past before the students dispersed home from their schools or colleges. SECTION D. SAMĀVARTANA¹ OR CONVOCATION RITUAL Who were eligible? Samāvartana or Snāna² ceremony was performed at the end of the Brahma- charya period to mark the termination of the education course³. When however in the course of time, the origi- nal nature and purport of the ritual were forgotten and the Upanayana began to be regarded as an obligatory and bodily Sanskāra, this ritual also came to be performed in all cases, irrespective of the consideration as to whether any educational course was followed by the youth or not. In early times it was performed when the education of the youth was over; marriage usually followed, but by no means immediately. In later times the ritual came to be performed as a kind of necessary formality just before the marriage, when it was settled.⁴ (VMS. p. 575)

1. Samāvartana literally means 'returning'; it refers to the return of the student to his home after finishing the course at the teacher's home.
2. This term refers to the bath given to the student on the occasion.
3. Some held that it should not be performed in the case of those who were not able to interpret the Vedic texts committed to memory by them; Cf. अन्यो वेदपाठी । न तस्य ज्ञानम् । M. Gr. S., I. 2. 8.
4. In northern India, the custom was introduced to perform it immediately after Upanayana.

288 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. This of course was not the original idea. The ritual was intended to correspond in a very great degree to the modern convocation function. Only those who have passed their examination are at present admitted to the convocation ; only those who had finished their education were in the beginning honoured with the privilege of Samāvartana. Our authorities prescribe no definite age for this ritual. The duration of the student-life varied with different courses and students, as has been already shown in Chapter IV ; and so no fixed age could be prescribed for this ritual. An interesting Preliminary : Samāvartana cere- mony is as simple as it is significant. An auspicious day was selected and the student was required to shut himself up in a room throughout the morning. This appears to be a queer procedure, but it was due to the desire to save the sun the humiliation of being con- fronted with a superior lustre. The belief was that the sun can shine only with the lustre he borrows from the Snātakas (graduates), who have completed their education$^1$. What better compliment can be conceived for edudation ? The Procedure . The student came out of his room at the midday, cleansed his mouth and shaved his head and beard. He then relinquished his girdle (mekhalā), deer-skin (ajina) etc., which were the insignia of the student's order. The period of strict discipline was now over and the teacher himself, who had sternly refused him the use of a number of luxuries, now came forward to offer them to him. He himself gave him a bath in fragrant water. It was followed by an offer of new clothes. Ornaments,

1. Cf. एतदहःस्नातानां ह वा एष एतत्तेजसा तपति तस्मादेनमेतद- हर्नाभितपेत्। Bh. G. S., II. 1. 8.

I, E] AYURVEDIC UPANAYANA 289 garland, collyrium, turban, umbrella and shoes, the use of which was taboo to him in the Brahmacharya period, were now to be formally and officially offered to him by his teacher with the recitation of proper Mantras. It was expected that the guardians, who were well off, would furnish a double set of the above articles, one for the teacher and the other for the ward.¹ A Homa followed and the hope was expressed that the young graduate would get plenty of students to teach.² The teacher then offered him Madhuparka,³ an honour reserved for the very select few like the king, Guru, and son-in-law. Presentation to the Assembly : Dressed in his new dress, the student would proceed to the assembly of the learned men of the locality in a chariot or on an elephant.⁴ He was there formally introduced as a competent scholar by his teacher. Returning home he would bid farewell to his teacher after paying him such honorarium (gurudakshiṇā) as he could afford. A critical survey of the Samāvartana ritual will show how high was the respect in which scholars who had completed their education were held by society. One authority asserts that they were the greatest force in society.⁵ SECTION E. AYURVEDIC UPANAYANA Rituals in Useful Education : When we consider

1. Āś. Gr. S. III, 8. 2. Bau. Gr. S., II, 6.
2. Madhuparka denotes an offering of ghee, honey, etc. presented by the householder to a respectable guest on his arrival home.
3. Dr. Gr. S., III, 1, 26; Āp. Gr. S. I, 11, 5.
4. Cf. महद्वै एतद् भूतं यः स्नातकः । 19

290 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. the great hold which religion possesses over the Hindu mind, it is natural to expect some rituals in useful and professional education also. We proceed to describe some of them in sections E to G. All Castes eligible : Upanayana or Initiation was primarily intended for Vedic education, but very soon its principle was extended to useful education also. Early writers on Āyurveda, like Charaka and Suśruta, lay down a special Upanayana ceremony for students seeking admission to the medical course. The medical profession was not like the Vedic scholarship an exclusive monopoly, in theory or practice, of any particular caste ; so Suśruta holds that a Kshatriya or a Vaishya physician also can play the role of the teacher for boys of his own caste.¹ It is quite probable that even Brahmana boys may have been initiated by non-Brahmana medical teachers, though our texts do not attest to this practice. The surgical school of Suśruta was in favour of the admission of even Shudra boys, though formal Upanayana with the recitation of the Mantras was prohibited in their case.² It is quite probable that Kshatriya and Shudra surgeons may have been, by tradition and environment, better adepts in the use of the knife than their Brahmana and Vaishya compeers.³ Survey of the Ritual : Ayurvedic Upanayana was a short ritual modelled largely upon the Vedic proto-

1. Sūtra-sthāna, II, 5.
2. Ibid.
3. Such minor surgical operations as were performed before the introduction of the modern surgery were usually attempted by barbers both in India and Europe.

I, F] DHANURVEDIC UPANAYANA 291 type. An auspicious day was selected for the purpose. Darbha, Samidhs (sacred fuel), flowers, etc. were collected, an altar was specially prepared, and oblations of ghee and honey were offered to various deities and sages, first by the teacher and then by the student. Naturally Dhanvantari, Aśvins, Indra, Prajāpati and the Sūtrakāras intimately connected with the development of the medical science occupied the place of honour in this sacrifice. Both the teacher and the student circumambulated the fire on the altar. Brahmanas and celebrated physicians were then worshipped by the pupil. Then in the presence of the sacred fire the Guru charged the student to follow the well known rules of the student life and refrain from lust, anger, covetousness, laziness, pride, untruth and cruelty.¹ The student was specially required to be always industrious and engaged in the pursuit of fresh knowledge. He ought to have faith in his teacher, who was required to teach him all that he knew. SECTION F. DHANURVEDIC OR MILITARY UPANAYANA² Ritual described : The ritual was to be performed on an auspicious day at the beginning of the military education. The student, who was required to observe a fast on that day, used to offer oblations to gods at the outset. Brahmanas were then fed and presents were offered to the teacher. The most important part of the ritual was the offering of a weapon to the youth

1. Suśruta, Sūtra-sthāna, chap. 2.
2. Described only in Dhanurveda-Saṁhitā of Vasiṣṭhra, which is a very late work.

292 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. along with the recitation of a Vedic Mantra.¹ Military training was no monopoly of the Kshatriyas in early times, and Vasiṣhṭha therefore lays down that a Brahmana was to be invested with a bow, the Kshatriya with a sword, the Vaishya with a lance and the Shudra with a mace. The Guru, who could initiate the youths, was himself expected to be an expert in the use of these and other weapons. Not common in early Times : How far this Dhanurvedic Upanayana was common among the Kshatriyas or those classes of the community, who received the military training, we do not know. The ritual is not mentioned by any early authority, and the epic heroes are not stated to have performed it. The Mantra recited at the time of offering the weapon to the student has no connection with the occasion, as shown in the foot-note below¹. It is therefore very doubtful whether the ritual was in general vogue. Probably it was a later invention and confined to a small section of the Kshatriya community. SECTION G CHHURIKĀ-BANDHA OR MILITARY CONVOCATION Chhurika-bandha :—This ceremony corresponds to Brahmanical Samāvartana and was performed at the

1. The Mantra laid down by Vasiṣṭha is as follows :— काण्डात्काण्डं प्ररोहन्ती परुषस्परुषस्परि । एवा नो दूर्वे प्रतनु सहस्रेण शतेन च ॥ या शतेन प्ररोहसि सहस्रेण विरोहसि । तस्मै ते देवीष्टके विधेम हविषा वयम् ॥ V.S., XIII, 20-1. The stanzas, however, refer to Dūrvâ grass and have no connection with the bow or arrow.

I, G] CHHURIKĀBANDHA 293 end of the military training. The central and essential part of the ritual was, as the name itself would suggest, the investiture of the budding hero with a dagger in token of his having completed his military training.¹ This ceremony is mentioned by Nārada alone, but it was fairly common in Rajputana among Rajput families at the beginning.of the 19th century, and was known as kharg bandhāi (tying of the sword), which is the vernacular rendering of the chhurikā- bandha of Nārada. This ceremony, which was per- formed before the marriage, may have been common in higher aristocratic families.

1. Cf. छुरिकाबन्धनं वक्ष्ये नृपाणां प्राक्करग्रहात् । विवाहोक्तेषु मासेषु शुक्लपक्षेप्यनस्तगे ॥ छुरिकाबंधनं कार्यं अर्चयित्वामरान्पितॄन् । अर्चयेच्छुरिकां नित्यं देवतानां च संनिधौ ॥ व्रतलग्ने च बध्नीयात्कट्यां लक्षणसंयुताम् । नारद in VMS., p. 580.

APPENDIX II. YAJÑOPAVĪTA OR THE SO-CALLED SACRED THREAD. **Introduction :—**Yajñopavīta is at present under- stood to be the Sacred Thread, that is to be worn by the twice-born classes from the time of the Upanayana ceremony onwards. The popular belief is that the Upanayana ceremony is primarily intended for investing the boy with this mysterious thread, and the Śrāvaṇī ritual for the purpose of renewing it annually. We have already shown how both these conceptions are wrong (App. I, B and C). Here we propose to trace briefly the history of Yajñopavīta. **Yajnopavita, the upper Garment :—**Later writers explain Yajñopavīta thread as a symbol of the Guṇamayī Māyā, as it was visualised by the Creator at the time of creation ;¹ but its original significance was entirely different. Grammatically, Yajñopavīta is an adjective and refers to something that was worn at the time of the sacrifice ; यज्ञाय उपवीतं यज्ञोपवीतम् । Hindu notion of decency required that the upper part of the body should be properly covered when one was engaged in sacred functions like sacrifices, charity

1. सिसृक्षुरेक एकाग्रे समासीनः शिवः स्वयम् । दृष्ट्वा गुणमयीं मायां सूत्ररूपामिवाकरोत् ॥ तया तदात्मकं विष्णुं स्पृष्ट्वा पालं दिवौकसाम् । स्वयं ब्रह्माऽभवद्बुद्धो रुद्रश्चास्य ज्ञयाय सः ॥ ज्ञानात्मकेन हरिणा ब्रह्मात्मनि शिवेऽव्यये । तत्सूत्रमुपवीतत्वाद्ब्रह्मसूत्रमिदं कृतम् ॥ Āśvalāyana quoted in VMS, p. 419.

II] YAJÑOPAVĪTA, THE SACRED THREAD 295 or svādhyāya.¹ Yajñopavīta denoted the upper garment when it was worn in the proper manner prescribed for sacred occasions. Taittirīya Saṁhitā is explicit on the point; it says that Yajñopavīta means wearing the garment in a particular manner; when the garment is passed under the right and over the left shoulder, it becomes Yajñopavīta according to the authority of Brāhmaṇa works.² The same garment was called Prāchīnāvīta when it was worn exactly in the reverse way, and Nivīta when it was allowed to hang down like a garland. **Its prehistoric Form :—**The upper garment that was thus used was normally a piece of cloth. But in prehistoric times when the art of spinning and weaving was not known, it was a piece of deer-skin. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka states that it should be a piece of deer-skin, rather than a piece of cloth.³ In the course of time when clothes became common, the upper garment also became a cotton product, but earlier tradition of the deer-skin was in a way preserved by continuing the use of a small patch of deer-skin on such occasions. In later times when Yajñopavīta as a piece of cloth was replaced by Yajñopavīta in the form of the thread, this piece of deer-skin was strung into it. This custom still obtains at the time of Upanayana.

1. उत्तरं वासः कर्तव्यं पञ्चस्वेतेषु कर्मसु । स्वाध्यायोत्सर्गदानेषु भुक्ताचमनयोस्तथा ॥ Baudhāyana in SCS, p. 299.
2. वासो विन्यासविशेषो यज्ञोपवीतम् । दक्षिणं बाहुमुद्धरतेऽवधत्ते सव्यमिति यज्ञोपवीतमिति ब्राह्मणम् ।
3. अजिनं वासो वा दक्षिणत उपवीय । I. II.

296 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. When and How the Thread came in :— In the early period, Yajñopavīta was normally in the form of a full upper garment like the Dupaṭṭā of northern India or the uparaṇe of Mahārāshṭra. Āpas- tamba Dharma Sūtra states distinctly that Yajñopavīta should be normally in the form of the upper garment ; wearing a thread instead is only the second alternative.¹ Jātukarṇya quoted in the Smṛitichandrikā distinctly declares that Yajñopavīta in the form of the thread is permissible only when the upper garment of the normal size is not available.² The view of Ṛishyaśṛiṅga is the same.³ Yajñopavīta was to be worn on sacred occasions like the sacrifice or the prayer. In the course of time the conception of the sacrifice changed ; the whole life came to be viewed as a kind of sacrifice when everything that one does should be dedicated to the Creator. If then the Yajñopavīta was to be continuously used during the time one is engaged in sacred duties, it must be worn all the twenty-four hours. This could be feasible only if the Yajñopavīta assumed a more manageable form. It was probably on this account that Yajñopavīta was allowed to dwindle in form into the modern Sacred Thread. The alternatives placed before society were many. Some were in favour of the continuance of the old custom ; they held that it was sufficient if the Yajñopavīta was worn as long as prac-

1. नित्यमुत्तरं वासः कार्यम् । अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे । II, 2, 4, 21-22.
2. वस्त्रोत्तरीयाभावे द्वयंगुलं त्र्यंगुलं चतुरंगुलं वा सूत्रैर्वस्त्राकृति परिमण्डलं तदुत्तरीयं कुर्यात् । p. 84.
3. अपि वा वाससा यज्ञोपवीतार्थं कुर्यात्तदभावे त्रिवृता सूत्रेण । Ibid, quoted in SCS., p. 84.

II] YAJÑOPAVITA, THE SACRED THREAD 297 ticable ; it need not be worn continuously for 24 hours¹. Others were in favour of substituting a Kuśa rope for the unmanageable upper garment². But Kuśa rope was not pleasant in touch and so some others advocated that cotton thread should be preferred for the purpose³. The reason in recommending the new substitutes was convenience and nothing else. For a long time they were not popular ; hence we find that in the Upanayana ceremony, as it is described in most of the Gṛihya-sutras, there is no mention of the boy being invested with the Sacred Thread. In stead, we have the description of the boy being offered the dupaṭṭā or uparaṇe i. e. the upper garment at one stage of the ritual, The Number of Sacred Threads increases, why :— In the course of time, however, owing to its obvious convenience, the innovation of the Sacred Thread became popular and its original significance was gradually forgotten. Brahmachārī was to wear only one Sacred Thread, but Snātaka was to wear two, one for the under garment and the other for the upper garment⁴. It was clearly forgotten by this time that Yajñopavīta was intended to be the upper garment. If Snātaka was to wear two Yajñopavītas, the Gṛihastha must wear three, for he was one stage higher. The Gṛihyā- saṅgraha however thinks that this third Sacred Thread

1. कार्पासक्षौमगोबालशणवल्कत्तृणोद्भवम् । सदा संभवतो धार्यमुपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥ Nigamaparisishṭa in SCS., p. 84.
2. यज्ञोपवीतं कुरुते सूत्रं वस्त्रं वापि कुशरज्जुमेव वा । Go. Gr. S., I. 2. 1.
3. अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे । Āp. Dh. S., II. 2. 4. 22.
4. स्नातकानां द्वितीयं स्यादन्तर्वासस्तथोत्तरम् । Vasishṭha in VMS., p. 421.

298 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. was in lieu of the upper garment¹. Devala also holds the same view; an upper garment, he says, is not always at hand, hence the recommendation to wear the third Sacred Thread². **Mysterious efficacy of Yajnopavita:-**In the course of time Yajñopavīta came to be invested with mysterious efficacy. The Āditya Purāṇa declares that it has the power of destroying demons. When such notions began to prevail in society, it is no wonder that the view began to be advocated that the greater the number of Sacred Threads, the better would be our spiritual and material welfare. Kāśyapa would recommend 2, 3, 5, or 10 Sacred Threads for the house-holder;³ an anonymous text quoted by Mitramiśra is in favour of as many Sacred Threads as possible.⁴ All this vividly shows how the original significance of the Yajñopavīta was completely forgotten by this time. When Yajñopavīta assumed the form of the thread, the custom gained ground of making each of its thread a constituent product of nine smaller threads. Oṅkāra, Agni, Bhaga, Soma, Piṭris, Prajāpati, Vasu, Dharma, and Sarva-devas were taken to be the presiding deities of the nine threads of the Sacred Thread. Can Yajnopavita be removed? :- Even when the Yajñopavīta dwindled into the Sacred-Thread, it could be occasionally removed in the course of the day. The Taittirīya, Kaṭha, Kāṇva, and Vājasaneya schools were in favour of permitting the removal

1. तृतीयमुत्तरीयार्थे वस्त्राभावे तदिष्यते । Ibid, p. 21.
2. तृतीयमुत्तरीयार्थे वस्त्रालाभे तदिष्यते । SCS., p. 801.
3. त्रीणि चत्वारि पञ्चाष्ट मुनिभिः स्युर्दशापि वा ॥ VMS., p. 421.
4. आयुष्कामैः सदा धार्यं बहुयज्ञोपवीतकम् ॥ 'अन्यत्रापि' in Ibid.

II] YAJÑOPAVĪTA, THE SACRED THREAD 299 of the Sacred Thread at the time of the daily bath;¹ the Ṛigvedins and the Sāmavedins, however, advocated the doctrine that the Sacred Thread should never be separated from one’s person. The latter view eventually prevailed and still obtains in Hindu society,

1. तैत्तिरीयाः कठाः काण्वाश्चरका वाजसेयिनः । कण्ठादुत्तार्य सूत्रं तु कुर्युर्वै क्षाळनं द्विजाः ॥ बह्वृचाः सामगाश्चैव ये चान्ये यजुःशाखिनः । कण्ठादुत्तार्य सूत्रं तु पुनरर्हन्ति संक्रियाम् ॥ भृगु in VMS., 421.

APPENDIX III. CONVOCATION ADDRESSES. Convocation address to Arts Graduates. A specimen of what may be described as a convo- cation address to Arts Graduates is to be found in the Taittirīya Upanishad, I, 11. As the passage is very interesting from several points of view, it is given below along with its translation. वेदमन्‌ूच्याचार्योऽन्तेवासिनमनुशास्ति । “सत्यं वद । धर्मं चर । स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः । आचार्याय प्रियं धनमाहृत्य प्रजातन्तुं मा व्यवच्छेत्सीः । सत्यान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । धर्म्मान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । कुशलान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । भूत्यै न प्रमदितव्यम् । स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रम- दितव्यम् । देवपितृकार्याभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् । मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव । आचार्य्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव । यान्यनवद्यानि कर्म्माणि तानि सेवितव्यानि नो इतराणि । यान्यस्माकं सुचरितानि तानि त्वयो- पास्यानि नो इतराणि । ये के चास्मच्छ्रे यांसो ब्राह्मणाः तेषां त्वयाऽऽसनेन प्रश्वसितव्यम् । श्रद्धया देयम् । संविदा देयम् । श्रिया देयम् । ह्रिया देयम् । भिया देयम् । संविदा देयम् । अथ यदि ते कर्मविचिकित्सा वा वृत्तविचिकित्सा वा स्यात् ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः युक्ता आयुक्ता अलूक्षा धर्म्मकामाः स्युः यथा ते तत्र वर्तेरन् तथा तत्र वर्तेथाः । अथाभ्या- ख्यातेषु ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः युक्ता आयुक्ता अलूक्षा धर्म्मकामाः स्युः यथा ते तेषु वर्तेरन् तथा तेषु वर्तेथाः । एष आदेशः । एष उपदेशः । एषा वेदोपनिषत् । एतदनुशासनम् । एवमुपासितव्यम् । एवमु चैतदुपास्यम् । TRANSLATION. After the teaching of the Veda is over, the preceptor exhorts the student :

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 301 “Speak the truth. Do your duty. Neglect not the daily study (of the Veda). After having brought to your teacher his proper reward, do not cut off the line of progeny. Do not swerve from the truth. Do not swerve from duty. Do not neglect what is useful. Do not miss opportunities to become great. Do not neglect the daily duties of learning and teaching (the Veda). Do not neglect the (sacrificial) rituals due to the Gods and Fathers. Let your mother be to you like unto a god. Let your father be to you like unto a god. Let your teacher be to you like unto a god. Let your guest be to you like unto a god. Whatever actions are blameless, those should be followed, not others. Whatever good works have been performed by us, those should be emulated by you, not others. And there are some Brahmanas better than we. They should be comforted by you by giving them a seat. Whatever is given should be given with faith, not without faith,—with joy, with modesty, with fear, with kindness. If there should be any doubt in your mind with regard to any duty or with regard to conduct,—in that case conduct yourself as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, conduct themselves therein, whether they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted to duty. And with regard to things that have been spoken against, conduct your- self as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, con- duct themselves therein, whether they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted to duty.