प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

32 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. induces the new entrants to imitate their example. The invisible yet all-pervading influence of established tradi- tions of the institution naturally spurs the student to identify himself with them. The system eliminated the factors in home life prejudicial to the educational atmos- phere and facilitated better studies; it however did not altogether eliminate the refining influence of the family life, because students used to come into indirect contact with it when living under the guardianship of their teachers, who were usually householders. It also served to tone down personal angularities of pampered children and made all students more resourceful and self-reliant and better acquainted with the ways of the world¹. It was felt that students trained at home would lack the benefit of school discipline and suffer from desultoriness and want of application and would thus normally compare very unfavourably with those trained in a Gurukula.² Gurukulas not always in Forests: The general belief that Gurukulas were located in forests away from the din of city life is but partly correct.³ There is no doubt that the majority of the teachers of philosophy in ancient India lived, thought out and taught their spiritual theories in sylvan solitudes. The same was the case with celebrated teachers like Vālmīki, Kaṇva and Sāndīpani; who used to stay in forests, though they had made arrangements in their Āśramas (forest retreats) to teach

¹ Cf. पोराणिकराजानो अत्तने पुत्ते 'एवं एते निहतमानदप्पा सीतण्हक्खमा लोकचरितञ्ञू भविस्संति' अत्तनो नगरे दीसापामोक्खे आचरिये विज्जमानेपि सिप्पुग्गहणत्थाय दूरे तिरोरट्ठं पेसंति । Jā. No. 252. ² अपि च ज्ञानसंपन्नः सर्वान्वेदान्पितुर्गृहे । श्लाघमान इवाधीयादग्राम्य इत्येव तं विदुः ॥ Mbh., XIII. 36.15 ³ Rules prescribing a holiday when there was a death or robbers' raid in the village (Manu, IV. 108, 113) presuppose that the school was not situated in a forest.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 33 hundreds of students in subjects like philology, grammar, astronomy and civics, in addition to Veda, religion and philosophy (Mbh., I: 91). In the Jātakas (e. g. No. 438) we sometimes come across the stories of teachers leaving cities like Benares and retreating to Himalayan forests with a view to be free from the disturbances from the city life. They were confident that the villagers around would supply their few and simple wants. But in the majority of cases Gurukulas were located in villages or towns. It will be seen that such was the case with most of the educational centres that would be described in Chapter V. This was but natural, for teachers were usually householders. Care however was taken to locate Gurukula in a secluded place or garden¹, and in holy surroundings. The case of Buddhist Universities like Nālandā or Vikramaśīlā and of Hindu _agrahāra_² settle- ments was peculiar; they were like modern University towns of Oxford, Cambridge or Benares Hindu Univer- sity, independent educational settlements, where arrange- ments were made for the lodging and boarding of students who flocked in hundreds and thousands. They combined the advantages both of the town and forest life. The Importance of the Family, Pre-birth Period: Association and imitation begin to influence the student not only from the time of his joining a school or Guru- 1 At Benares during the 17th century, students and teachers used to repair to adjoining gardens and orchards for the purpose of study. This practice is presupposed by the Go. Br., I. 2. 1-8 where it states that students should enter the village only for necessary work like begging alms, etc. 2 This word denotes village consisting only of Brahmana scholars, who were assigned its entire revenues for the purpose of their maintenance. It may therefore be compared to a settlement of teachers, each of them being engaged in teaching some students free of charge. 3

34 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. kula, but from his early childhood; ancient Indians therefore attached great importance to the family in their scheme of education. They held that the child begins to receive influences that mould its character and determine its efficiency right from the time of its conception. If Prahlāda became a deep devotee and Abhimanyu a skilful warrior, the reason was the influence indirectly exercised upon them by Nārada and Kṛishṇa respectively, when they were still to be heralded in this world. It was believed that the impressions, which would be conveyed on the mind of the expectant mother, would be automati- cally transmitted to the mind of the child to be born. The mother therefore was advised to devote herself to the study and contemplation of the achievements and biogra- phies of great national heroes and heroines, so that she may herself get a child that may be a worthy successor of theirs. Family and the Pre-School Period: We have seen already that the preservation of the national culture was one of the important aims of education and the family was expected to cooperate with the school in its realisation. The ambition of the child was first fired and its imagina- tion set aglow not by the lessons it received in the school but by the stories it heard from its mother and grand- mother. Well known is the part which the home influence played in shaping the career and firing the imagination of heroes and saints like Shivājī and Rāmadāsa. Multiplica- tion tables, noun declensions and some metrical rules about grammar were taught at home to the child during its early childhood in all cultured families. The home thus not only prepared the child for the school, but also supplemented its work. The Role of the Family in the Pre-Historic Times: In pre-historic times, i. e. before about 1000 B. C., the

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 35 family played a still greater part in the educational system. At that early period, the professional teacher was yet rather rare; so generally the father was the usual teacher and the home the usual school. Several examples are preserved in Vedic and Upanishadic literature of fathers themselves teaching their own sons.¹ Nay, the father himself was to begin the Vedic education, because it was he and he alone who was regarded as eligible for teaching the Gāyatrī Mantra to the boy; recourse was had to another teacher only if he was unavailable for the purpose. In course of time, owing to greater specialisa- tion that became inevitable, home education became possible only in the case of a few cultured families. Remaining families were however expected to take prompt steps to send the children to a teacher or a school at the proper time and supervise their lessons at home if neces- sary. Supervision of the education of the family wards was one of the most important duties of its head.² Family and the Female Education: In the case of the education of girls, the family played an important part. We do come across rare cases of girls being educat- ed at boarding schools or colleges; for instance, we read in the drama Mālatīmādhava how Kāmandakī was educated at a college along with Bhūrivasu and Devarāta (Act I). These cases were however exceptional, for there was a general prejudice against sending girls outside for their education. Dharmasūtras insist that they should be taught at home by their male guardians like the father, the brother or the uncle. This was of course possible only in

1. Prajāpati was the teacher of his sons, Devas, Asuras and Men, Br. Up. V. 2.1. Āruni had initiated his son Śvetaketu in the study of philosophy. Br. Up., VI. 2. 1; Ch. Up., V. 3.
2. Rv., I, 24

36 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. well-to-do and cultured families. Home, of course, was the main centre of the education of girls in the domestic science. Nature vs. Nurture ; some Western Views: What is the relative importance of nature and nurture in the scheme of education has been a question of great contro- versy since early times. Are human beings born with their mental, moral and intellectual characters and faculties rigidly predetermined, or can these be modified by educa- tion, and if so, to what extent ? As is well known, different answers are given to this question by different educationalists in the west also. Plato, for instance, held that human mind is like a skein, that has to be only unravelled in this world ; all knowledge is contained in a man, he has only to be reminded of it. Darwin, Galton and Ribot attach great importance to the role which here- dity plays in our nature and Shopenhauer held that human character is inborn and unalterable. Herbert and Locke on the other hand maintain that it is not nature but nurture that determine our destiny. We come into this world with minds as empty as our bodies are naked ; it is the training which we receive and the environments in which we live that determine our character and capacities. Vedic Age believed more in Nurture: As may be expected, there is no unanimity of views among ancient Indian thinkers also about the relative importance of nature and nurture. A young people, fortunate to have a series of successes, naturally feel that there is nothing impossible or difficult for man. Vedic Aryans belonged to this category and their age therefore did not much believe in heredity or natural endowments. This is em- phatically expressed in one of the hymns of the Atharva- veda, where we are told that given proper education, everything can be accomplished. Even Indra owes his

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 37 supremacy among the gods not to any penance or previous merit, but to his proper training during his studenthood.¹ A few centuries later we find a patriarch praying that some of his sons should become good priests, others brave warriors and the rest successful merchants (S. Br., X.4.1.10). Obviously he did not much believe in heredity and held that a good deal depended upon proper training and education. Karman Theory; Growing Faith in Nature: In the course of time, however, the supreme confidence that was placed in nurture began to weaken to a great extent. When the Aryans settled down in a less spectacular and more peaceful life and began to investigate more carefully the phenomena of life around them, they began to feel that man is not entirely an architect of his own fortune, and that the powers and capacities with which he is born determine the scope of his prospects and activity to a considerable extent. The doctrines of Karman and Rebirth, which were unknown in the Vedic age, became universally accepted in the course of time, swinging the pendulum considerably in favour of nature as against nurture. It began to be averred that the deeds (Karman) in previous lives, rather than the training in the present one, will determine whether our intellect is to be bright² and moral propensities strong. The development of the caste system on hereditary lines did not strengthen the hands of the advocates of nurture; it began to be argued that the efficiency of a person as a priest or a warrior does not so much depend upon the training he receives in this life as upon the inherent qualities with which he is born as a consequence of his Karman in

1. इन्द्रो ह ब्रह्मचर्येण देवेभ्यः स्वराभवत् । V. 1. 19. 2, बुद्धिः कर्मानुसारिणी ।

38 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. previous births. The Karman determines the qualities and characteristics, and God assigns birth in that particu- lar caste in which they would be most needed. As a natural consequence of these theories, educationalists began to aver that nature is more important than nurture; a bamboo tree cannot blossom into a sandal one simply because it is assiduously watered and manured and planted upon the Malaya mountain.¹ If you have no natural capacity, education cannot create it; a mirror can show reflection only to one who has the eyesight.² A conscientious teacher imparts education as assiduously to a brilliant as to a dull student; there is however a world of difference as to the results. One shines forth in the world of scholars, while the other hardly succeeds in making any appreciable progress. Glass alone can reflect solar rays, not a piece of earth, howsoever polished.³ This view is similar to that of Plato who has pointed out that education is not like putting sight into blind eyes; it is only turning the eyes to light. The Function of Nurture: Though natural en- dowments thus play a great part, it was realised that they exist only in a potential condition in our childhood and would not flower into perfection unless they are properly ¹ अंतःसारविहीनस्य सहायः किं करिष्यति । मलयेपि स्थितो वेणुर्वेणुरेव न चंदनः । S R.B, p. 41.7. ² यस्य नास्ति स्वयं प्रज्ञा शास्त्रोक्तं किं करिष्यति । लोचनाभ्यां विहीनस्य दर्पणः किं करिष्यति । Ibid, p. 40.1. ³ वितरति गुरुः प्राज्ञे विद्यां यथैव तथा जडे न च खलु तयोर्ज्ञाने शक्तिं करोत्यपहन्ति वा । ⸰ भवति च पुनर्भूयान्भेदः फलं प्रति तद्यथा प्रभवति मणिर्बिम्बोद्ग्राहे न चैव मृदां चयः ॥ II. Uttararāmacharit, II. 4.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 39 developed by training and education. One may be born in a Brahmana family on account of his past good Karman; one may be also endowed by nature with the qualities of a Brahmana like self-control and love of learning. Still he will be not a whit higher than a Shudra if he does not receive proper sacraments (Sanskāras) and gets the neces- sary education.¹ Past Karman may determine the mental and intellectual qualities of an individual. But they will deteriorate if he does not receive proper education, and improve, though within a limited degree, if he gets the benefit of good training under a competent teacher. That nature can thus be considerably modified by nurture seems to have been the considered opinion of ancient Indian educationalists from about the beginning of the Christian era. This view is similar to the theory of Stern who sought to effect a compromise between the extreme posi- tions of Galton and Locke by maintaining that man is born with tendencies, which are conditioned by heredity but which are transformed into the qualities of human personality through a process of development and training. The Influence of the Caste System: The caste system has been an important feature of Hindu society for a long time and has naturally exercised considerable influence on the theory and practice of education in ancient India. Let us try to find out its extent. It is usually held that it had rigidly determined the professions and made the teaching line a monopoly of the Brahmanas. We shall however find that Kshatriya teachers of Vedic and philosophical subjects existed down the 6th century B. C. and that the keen intellect of the Brahmana com- munity was for a long time utilised to further the bounds ¹ जन्मना जायते शूद्रः संस्काराद्द्विज उच्यते । विद्यया याति विप्रत्वं त्रिभिः श्रोत्रिय उच्यते ॥

40 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.

of human knowledge in several branches of non-Vedic studies. It was only in later times that religious and literary education came to be confined to the Brahmanas and professional and industrial training to non-Brahmanas. Caste System once Flexible: The caste system has got a long history and has undergone many changes and vicissitudes during the last three thousand years. It was formerly much less rigid than now. Interdining is an anathema to an orthodox Hindu today. Dharmaśāstra writers like Manu (IV. 253) and Āpastamba (II. 1.3-4) however permit a Brahmana to take his meals in the house of a barber, a milkman and a tenant and employ a Shudra cook even for preparing the sacred sacrificial food. Inter- caste marriages, which are still not permissible under the Hindu law, were allowed by the majority of Smṛitis, provided the bridegroom belonged to a higher caste. In the realm of educational theory and practice also, we should therefore not be surprised if we find that some of the later theories were not subscribed to or followed in earlier times. Non-Brahmanas as Vedic Teachers: It is well- known that the Smṛitis have laid down that Brahmanas alone should impart Vedic education. In the earlier period however such was not the case. There is evidence to show that non-Brāhmanas also sometimes used to become Vedic teachers; rituals have been prescribed to enable them to shine in that line.¹ This need not cause any surprise, for some Kshatriyas figure among the composers of Vedic hymns also; the whole of the third book of the Rig-veda is a composition of the various members of the •¹ Cf. योऽब्राह्मणो विद्यामनूच्य नैव रोचेत स एतांश्चतुर्होतॄन् व्याचक्षीत । एतद्वै देवा'नां ब्रह्म निरुक्तं यच्चतुर्होतारस्तदेनं निरुच्यमानं प्रकाशं गमयति ॥ K S., IX. 16

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 41 Kshatriya Viśvāmitra family. In the Upanishadic period Kshatriyas took an important part in the development of philosophy and were the exclusive custodians of many esoteric doctrines, which Brahmanas could learn only from them and not without some difficulty.¹ There are several cases of Brahmanas approaching renowned Kshatriya teachers like Aśvapati, Janaka and Pravāhaṇa Jaivali as humble students of philosophy and religion.² We should therefore note that the caste system succeeded in making Vedic and religious education a monopoly for the Brah- manas only at about 300 B. C. Nor was it a lucrative monopoly in practice; it was a monopoly to beg. The income of even the most famous Vedic teachers was a precarious one and compared very poorly with the gains of a successful merchant or a captain. Brahmanas as Teachers of Non-Vedic Subjects : Smṛitis lay down that Brahmanas should not follow the professions of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas except in times of difficulties. This would naturally imply that Brahmanas did not figure as teachers in military or commercial lines. How could one become a teacher in a profession which one was not expected to follow ? For a long time, how- ever, Brahmanas were following a number of non-Vedic pursuits and professions and also figuring as their teachers. What can be more incompatible with the Brahmanical ideal of piety and religiousness than the military profession ? And yet we find Brahmanas figuring as teachers of the military science. The Pāṇḍava and Kaurava heroes, who fought so bravely in the Mahābhārata war, were not trained by any Kshatriya teacher; their preceptor, Droṇā- chārya was a Brahmana. Brahmanas, who were trainers

1 Ch. Up., V. 3. 7; Br. Up. II. 1.15 2 Br. Up. II. 1.14, IV.1.1, Ch. Up. IV. 4.1, etc

42 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. of horses and elephants, are mentioned in Smṛitis (Manu, III. 162). Jātakas also show that at Taxila, Brahmanas used to impart education in several practical professions like the military art, medicine and snake charming etc. both to Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.¹ Dhanurveda lays down that Brahmanas are as eligible to be the teachers of the military science as Kshatriyas (1.4). Being as a rule more intelligent than members of other castes, they must have shone in these lines also, as for instance was the case with Droṇāchārya. It was only in later times, from c. 500 A.D. onwards, that Brahmanas ceased to be teachers of useful arts and professions owing to the growing rigour of the caste system. This was rather unfortunate, for it prevented the utilisation of the intellect of one of the most intelligent classes in society for expanding the boundaries of knowledge in the domain of practical sciences. Caste System and Curriculum, Domination of Vedic Studies: Let us now find out the influence the caste system exercised on the curriculum. A perusal of the relevant rules of the Smṛitis produces the impression that Vedic studies must have dominated the course prescribed for the Brahmanas. It has been emphatically laid down that all Brahmanas should devote twelve years to Vedic studies after their Upanayana. Such, however, was not the case in actual practice. Only a small section of the Brahmana community,—possibly not more than its one- fifth,—used to devote itself to Vedic 'studies, when new branches of knowledge like grammar, philosophy, law and classical Sanskrit literature came to be developed. For the preservation of the Vedic literature, the services of only a small section of the community were necessary; the rest

¹ खत्तियमानवा ब्राह्मणमानवा च तस्सेव संतिके सिप्पं उग्गण्हितुं गच्छंति । Asadisa J. No. 181; see also Thusa J. No 338.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 43 were required to memorise the few Vedic Mantras neces- sary for daily religious purposes and encouraged to devote their main energy to the development of new branches of knowledge like philosophy, grammar, and classical Sanskrit literature, where they were able to make substantial contributions, which still continue to be highly valued both in India and abroad. Vedic Studies of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas; According to the Smṛiti rules, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas also had to pursue Vedic studies after their Upanayana. These however were never deep or prolonged. In some Jātaka stories, we no doubt read that some princes used to study all the three Vedas as well as eighteen practical sciences¹; in the Mahābhārata also we find that the Kaurava princes are represented as experts in Veda, Vedānta and the various branches of the military science (I. 118 and 133). A perusal of the relevant passages shows that the writers of the above works were more anxious to enumerate all the known branches of knowledge and represent them as being mastered by their heroes, than in narrating the actual state of affairs in their contemporary times. We have seen already that the Brāhmaṇas, who did not intend to follow the theological career, contented themselves with the knowledge of only a few Vedic hymns; Kshatriyas and Vaishyas must have done the same; in later life they had no prospect of becoming Vedic teachers, and for their military or commercial career Vedic educa- tion was not useful or necessary. Vedic and philosophical studies were included in early times in the curriculum of the prince, but they were left out in the course of time. From about the beginning of the Christian era, the

¹ Cf. सोळसवस्सपदेसिको हुत्वा तकसिलायां सिप्पंउग्गण्हित्वा तिण्णं वेदानं पारं गत्वा अट्ठारसानं विज्जट्ठानं निष्फत्तिं पापुनाति । Dummedha J. No. 50.

44 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Upanayana ritual began to fall into disuse in the case of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas and this naturally gave a great set back to their Vedic education.¹ Gradually they were reduced to the position of the Shudras and completely debarred from the Vedic education by about 1000 A. D. (Alberuni, II. p. 136) Vedic Education and the Shudras: Sacred texts have laid down in very emphatic terms that the Shudra should be rigorously excluded from the Vedic education and rituals. This injunction has been always carried out in practice.² The carpenter no doubt is declared to be eligible for Upanayana and Vedic studies in some early- texts. He however was at that early period a member of the Aryan and not the Shudra community. The exclusion of the Shudras from the Vedic studies undoubtedly ap- pears as unjustifiable to us at present, but there were peculiar circumstances that necessitated this step in early times. The art of writing was not utilised for the purpose of preserving the Vedic texts for a long time. The Aryan theologians believed that if there was the slightest mistake in the accent or the pronunciation of the Vedic Mantras, a disaster would inevitably issue.³ As the Vedic Sanskrit 1 Hence the observation of Dalhana, a medieval writer at, Suśruta, Śārīra, X, 52, यथावर्णमिति ब्राह्मणात्त्रयीं राजन्यो दण्डनीतिं वैश्यो वार्तामिति । 2 यथेमां वाचं कल्याणीमावदानि जनेभ्यः । ब्रह्मराजन्याभ्यां शूद्राय चार्याय च स्वाय चारणाय च ॥ Vaj. Sam. XXVI, 2 is taken by some as referring to the admission of the Shudras to the Vedic education. This, how- ever, is very questionable interpretation; कल्याणी वाक् refers to the preceding stanza, which it is prayed here, may be applicable to the whole of humanity. 3 Cf मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ॥ Pāṇinisikshā, v. 52.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 45 was not the mother tongue of the Shudras, it was feared that Vedic hymns would be transformed out of recognition, if they were transmitted orally in Shudra families from generation to generation. In the eyes of the theologian, this would be a great disaster. Later on when female education began to lag behind, and women as a class ceased to be educated in Sanskrit, it is interesting to note that the Brahmana theologians did not flinch from placing their own mothers, wives and daughters in the category of the Shudras and declaring unhesitatingly that they also were unfit for Vedic studies. Theological animus or pride was thus not at the root of the exclusion of the Shudras and women from the Vedic education. Nor did it amount to a total denial of religious education; for women and Shudras were permitted to get religious enlightenment from the study of Smṛitis, Epics and Purāṇas. Conclusion: It will be thus seen that with the exception of the exclusion of the Shudras from the Vedic education, the caste system for a long time did not result in restricting professions to particular castes. This was but natural. Teaching may be a fit profession for Brahmanas, but if some of them were intellectually inferior, their birth could not impart to them the necessary efficiency as teachers. Even a Brahmana writer therefore is constrained to observe that dull Brahmana children should follow the profession of the Kshatriya or the Vaishya.¹ Ambitious Brahmanas also could not be pre- vented from following the military profession, where glittering prizes awaited the successful adventurer. A Brahmana priest of holy Benares is to be seen sending his son to Taxila to learn archery, because it was predicted 1 राजन्यवैश्यकर्म विद्याहीनः । G. D. S., 1. 6. 16.

46. EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. that he was to be a king.¹ It was ambition alone that was responsible for sovereignty being vested in Brahmana families like those of the Śuṅgas, the Kaṇvas and the Kadambas. The recruitment to the army was not confined to the Kshatriya caste; inscriptions make it clear that it was very largely recruited from the agriculturists and Shudras. Dhanurveda also contemplates military education for all the four castes. It is interesting to note that when Yuan Chwang was in India in the second quarter of the 7th century A. D., the kings of Ujjain, Maheshvar and Assam were Brahmanas, those of Pariyātra and Kanauj, Vaishyas, and those of Matipura and Sindh, Shudras. If members of all classes could become kings, it follows that they must be all following the military profession. The commercial and industrial lines were also very often followed by many Brahmanas and Kshatriyas. The caste system therefore made education rigid only to a limited degree and that too from c. 800 A. D. Caste System and Buddhist Education: The caste system did not at all influence the education imparted in Buddhist centres of learning. This was but natural, for the Buddha was against the system and argued that the worth of a man should be determined by his actual merit, and not by his descent or family status. Persons were admitted to the Order irrespective of their castes; Upāli, one of the favourite disciples of the Buddha, was a barber before he joined the Order.² But though it is true that everybody could become a preacher after a certain number of years, it is interesting to note that among famous Bud- dhist teachers and scholars, the vast majority consisted of
47. Sārābhaṅga J. No. 522.
48. Servants, slaves and debtors were refused admission to the Order because the Buddha did not desire to affect the rights of third parties by the admissions made into the Church.

II] SOME EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND POSTULATES 47 those who had originally hailed from Brahmanical families. Thus Moggalāna, Sāariputta, Nāgasena, Vasubandhu and Nāgārjuna were all Brahmanas before their conversion. As far as the curriculum is concerned, it was predominently religious and philosophical, as it was primarily intended for monks and nuns and not for the laity. We therefore need not consider whether the caste system in any way determined or affected the imparting of useful or profes- sional education in Buddhist colleges.

Chapter III THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT. Teacher deeply revered-His training-His qualifications-High code of his profession-Duties of the teacher-His income-Student's duties- Relations between teachers and students-Student's daily life-His duty to beg daily food-Rules of discipline-Were they unreasonable? Introduction : We have now seen what were the ideals, postulates and principles of the ancient Indian educa- tional system. Now we propose to discuss the topics and problems connected with the qualifications of the teacher, the ideals which animated him, the position that was accorded to him in society, the nature of the relationship that existed between him and his students and the import- ant features of the student life. These are important topics, as they have a vital bearing on the success or failure of the educational system. Importance of the Teacher : The importance which in modern times is attached to the Institution or the Alma Mater was in ancient days attached to the teacher in India. This was but natural, for organised educational institutions came rather late into existence in this country, as was also the case in the West. The person who takes charge of immature children and makes them worthy and useful citizens in society was naturally held in high reverence. It was the function of the teacher to lead the student from the darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge. The lamp of learning is concealed under a cover, says one thinker; the teacher removes it and lets out the light.¹ The student therefore must be very grateful

1. Cf. यथा घटप्रतिच्छन्ना रत्नराजा महाप्रभाः । अकिंचित्करतां प्राप्तास्तद्वद्विद्याश्चतुर्दश ॥ Quoted by Aparāka on Yaj. I, 212

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 49 to him and show him the highest possible reverence. He is to be revered even more than parents; to the latter, we owe our physical birth, to the former our intellectual regeneration. From the Vedic age downwards the teacher has been all along designated as the spiritual and intellec- tual father of the student.¹ Without his help and guid- ance, no education is possible. He is in fact indispensable. This is graphically illustrated by the story of Ekalavya, who when refused admission to his school by Droṇa, pre- pared an image of the teacher under whom he longed to learn, and successfully finished his studies in archery under the inspiration that he received from the inanimate representation of his animate preceptor. Buddhists and Jains also attached equally great importance to the tea- cher. This importance attached to the teacher need not surprise us, for it is now admitted on all hands that neither buildings nor equipment exercise such influence on students as is exercised by cultured and competent teachers, who instruct as well as inspire. Why the Teacher was Revered : The great import- ance that was attached to the teacher in the ancient system of education and the high reverence that was shown to him in society are not difficult to understand. Since the earliest times the Vedic learning is being transmitted orally in India from one generation to another. This continued to be the case even when the art of writing came into general vogue. The Mahābhārata condemns to hell a person who commits the Vedas to writing. Great importance was attached to the proper 1 Cf. आचार्य उपनयमानो ब्रह्मचारिणं कृणुते गर्भमन्तः । A. V. XI, 5, 3, See also Va. Dh. S., 28,38-9; Gau. Dh. S., I. 1, 10; Manu, II, 170. Bau. Dh. S., 1. 2. 48 maintains that a Śrotriya can never be regarded as issueless, his students are his sons. 4

50 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. accent and pronunciation in the Vedic recitation, and these could be properly learnt only from the lips of a properly qualified teacher. The continuous transmission of the store of the Vedic knowledge, which society regarded as priceless, was possible only through the instrument- ality of the teacher and his importance therefore could not be exaggerated. With the rise of the mystical systems of philosophy in the age of the Upanishads, the reverence for the Guru became still more intensified ; for spiritual salvation depended almost entirely upon his proper guidance.¹ This deification of the philosophical Guru was not without its reaction in favour of the ordinary teacher who taught disinterestedly without stipulating for any fees. We should further remember that books being dear and rare, the student had generally to rely upon his teacher alone to a much greater degree than is the case now.² in the case of professions, even when books exist in plenty, a good deal more has to be learnt from the teacher. So a competent and sympathetic teacher, who would unreservedly place at the disposal of his pupil the essence of all his experience, could hardly be over- venerated by the artisan apprentice working under him. The glorification of the teacher must have produced great psychological influence on students, for childhood is the hey day of personal influence.

1 नैषा मतिस्तर्केणापनेया प्रोक्तान्येनैव सुज्ञानाय प्रेष्ठ । K. Up., II, 9. तद्विज्ञानाय गुरुमेवाभिगच्छेत्समित्पाणिः श्रोत्रियं ब्रह्मनिष्ठम् ।: Mun. Up, 1, 2, 3. 2 Mss. were often unreliable; so there was a prejudice against students, who had not read under a teacher: cf:— पुस्तकप्रत्ययाधीतं नाधीतं गुरुसंनिधौ । भ्राजते न सभामध्ये जारगर्भ इव स्त्रियः ॥ Nārada quoted by Pa. Mā., at I, 38.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 51 Teacher's Training:—Though the teacher was held in high reverence, it does not appear that any institutions like Teachers' Training Colleges of the modern times existed in the past. One of the hopes expressed at the convocation (Samāvartana) was that the graduate may have the good luck of attracting students from all quarters.¹ It is therefore clear that no further training was deemed necessary for the graduate in order to qualify him for the teaching profession. The reasons for this are not far to seek. Students received individual attention and lessons from their teachers, as will be shown in Chapter VI. During their educational course Vedic students could note how precisely teachers used to pronounce and intonate the Vedic Mantras when teaching them to their students. As far as the study of other branches like grammar, logic, rhetoric, philosophy etc. was concerned, no special training was necessary for fostering and deve- loping the powers of exposition and elucidation of students specialising in them. In the modern system of education students can get their degrees by listening to their teachers in the class-rooms and answering the question papers in the examination halls. Such was not the case in ancient India. Several times during his course the student was called upon to pass through the fiery ordeal of learned debates (Śāstrārtha) when he was called upon to defend his own position and attack that of the opponent in heated discussions. Powers of debate and discussion were thus remarkably developed by the time the student finished his education. Advanced students were also given opportunities of teaching the beginners in most of the educational institutions.² The graduate therefore had a 1 Bau. Gr. S., II, 6. 2 See Suta-soma-jātaka No. 537. Of the advanced scholars at P. T. O.