THE NĀṬYAŚĀSTRA

CHAPTER ONE

THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA

Salutation

1. With a bow to Pitāmaha¹ (Brahman) and Maheśvara² (Śiva) I shall explain the Canons of Drama³ (Nāṭyaśāstra) which were uttered by Brahman.

Sages question.

2-5. Once in the days of yore, high-souled sages such as, Ātreya¹ and others who had subdued their senses, approached the pious Bharata² the master of dramatic art during an intermission of studies (anadhyāya). He (Bharata) then just finished

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1 (B. G. same). ¹ Pitāmaha (the Grand-father) is a Purāṇic epithet of the Vedic god Brahman. For, the Pitṛs (the Fathers) such as Aṅgiras, Bhṛgu, Dakṣa and Marīci and others, whose descendants peopled this earth, were their progeny. In the later literature and religion of India, Brahman gradually recedes in the background and practically vanishes. His place is taken by the extra-Vedic Śiva, and Viṣṇu in his fullfledged Purāṇic character.

² Maheśvara (the Great God) is another name of Śiva who is originally a pre-Vedic deity. Salutation to Śiva along with Brahman, is very rare in Indian literature.

³ By 'drama' in this connexion is to be understood any play in its theatrical and literary character. For on this point Ag. (I. p. 7) says that the NŚ. is meant for the producer (of a play) as well as the poet (=playwright). कविप्रयोक्तृरुपदेशपरं शास्त्रमिति.

2-5 (B.G. same). ¹ Ātreya—There are two Ātreyas. One is a disciple of Yājñavalkya (Mbh.) and another that of Vāmadeva (Brahma P.) See Vidyalankar, Jīvanī-koṣa, sub voce.

² Purāṇas except the Matsya (24. 28-30) are silent on this Bharata, the authority on the Canons of Drama.

2	THE NATYASASTRA	[ I. 5-

the muttering of prayers (japa) and was surrounded by his sons. The sages respectfully said to him, “O Brahman, how did originate the Nāṭyaveda³ similar to the Vedas, which you have properly composed? And for whom is it meant, how many limbs does it possess, what is its extent⁴ and how is it to be applied? Please speak to us in detail about it all⁵”.

Bharata answers.

6. Hearing these words of the sages, Bharata began in reply to speak thus about the Nāṭyaveda :

7-12. “Get yourselves cleansed, be attentive and hear about the origin of the Nāṭyaveda devised by Brahman¹. O Brahmins, in the days of yore when the Golden Age (Kṛtayuga)¹ᵃ passed with the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu), and the Silver Age (Tretāyuga) commenced with the career of Vaivasvata Manu, and people became addicted to sensual

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³ Nāṭyaveda—The ‘Nāṭyaveda’ according to Ag. is a synonym for the ‘Nāṭyaśāstra’, and is no Vedic work. He (I. p. 4) says : अत्र तु नाट्यस्य वेदः शास्त्रमिति समासः अन्यथा अध्यापनासम्भवात्.

⁴ pramāṇa=extent. Ag. takes the word in the sense of proof (pramāṇaṁ atra niścaya-janakatvam), but he cites another view as well, which takes the word to mean ‘number’ and is as follows : अन्ये तु नाट्यांगतानां रूपकादीनां पाठ्याभिनयरसगीतानां का संख्येति विभागविषयोऽयं प्रश्न इत्याचक्षते.

⁵ From the five questions put in here, it is not to be assumed that the treatment of subjects mentioned will follow the order of these.

6 (B.G. same).

7-12 (B.G. same). ¹ The reference here is to the Nāṭyaveda alleged to have been composed by Brahman in about 36000 ślokas. It is also believed that, later on a shorter work (in 12000 granthas) was based on this great work and it was in the form of a dialogue between Śiva and Pārvatī. This is considered by some to be the Ādibharata or Sadāśivabharata. The present NŚ. contains about 12000 granthas and it is supposed to include the views of the authors of the now extinct Nāṭyaveda (composed by Brahman) as well as of the Ādibharata. See Preface to NŚ. (B.) pp. 6-7. On this point Ag (I. p. 8) says: एतेन सदाशिवब्रह्मभरतमतत्रयविवेचनेन ब्रह्ममतसारताप्रतिपादनाय मतत्रयीसारविवेचनं तद्ग्रन्थसंक्षेपेण विहितमिदं शास्त्रं.

¹ᵃ A. K. Coomaraswamy has freely translated 8-17 (The Mirror of Gestures, New York, 1936, p. 16).

-I. 15 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 3

pleasures², were under the sway of desire and greed, became infatuated with jealousy and anger and [thus] found their happiness mixed with sorrow, and Jambudvīpa³ protected by the Lokapālas (guardians of the worlds) was full of gods, Dānavas, Gandharvas, Yakṣas, Rākṣasas and great Uragas (Nāgas), the gods, with Indra (Mahendra) as their head, (approached) Brahman and spoke to him, 'We want an object of diversion, which must be audible as well as visible⁴. As the Vedas are not to be listened to by those born as Śūdras, be pleased to create another Veda which will belong to all the Colour-groups⁵ (varṇa)'.

13. "Let it be so", said he in reply and then having dismissed the king of gods (Indra) he resorted to yoga (concentration of mind)¹ and recalled to mind the four Vedas.²

14-15. He then thought: "I shall make a fifth¹ Veda on the Nāṭya with the Semi-historical Tales (itihāsa),² which will conduce to duty (dharma)³, wealth (artha) as well as fame, will

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² grāmyadharma—Ag. explains the word differently and as follows : ग्राम्योऽसभ्यताप्रार्थनाकीर्यदेयोचितो धर्मः स्वधर्माननुपालनलक्षणः.

³ According to ancient Indian geography the earth was divided into seven dvīpas (continents). Jambudvīpa is one of them. It included Bhārata-varṣa or Bharata-varṣa, known at present as 'India'. Viṣṇu P. (ch. 1-12). See Winternitz, Hist. of Indian Literature, Vol. I, p. 548.

⁴ On this point Ag. says : दृश्यमिति हृद्यं श्रव्यमिति व्युत्पत्तिप्रदमित्यर्थः.

⁵ This relates to the four classes such as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra.

13 (B.G. same). ¹ Yoga has been defined in Patañjali's work as cittavṛttinirodhaḥ. It however begins with the concentration of the mind.

² After 13, B. reads one additional couplet. But G. considers this passage to be spurious and puts it in the footnote.

14-15 (B.G. same). ¹ In the early Indian literature the itihāsa alone was considered as the fifth Veda. See Chāndogya Up. VII. 1f. and 7., and Suttanipāta, II.7 (sellasutta). Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra too gives the same position to the itihāsas. See Winternitz, Vol. I. p. 313.

² On itihāsa see note below.

³ dharma also means virtue, law and custom etc.

4 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 15-

contain good counsel and collection [of other materials for human well-being], will give guidance to people of the future as well in all their actions, will be enriched by the teaching of all scriptures (śāstra) and will give a review of all arts and crafts⁴ (śilpa)”.

16. With this resolve the Holy One (bhagavat) from his memory of all the Vedas shaped this Nātyaveda compiled from the four of them.

17-18. The recitative (pāṭhya) he took from the Ṛgveda, the song from the Sāman, Histrionic Representation (abhinaya) from the Yajus, and Sentiments (rasa) from the Atharvaveda, [and] thus was created the Nātyaveda connected with the Vedas principal and subsidiary (vedopaveda)¹, by the holy Brahman who knows [them] all.

19-20. After the creation of the Nātyaveda Brahman said to Indra (lit. the lord of the gods), “Semi-historical Tales (itihāsa)¹ have been composed by me, you are to get them [dramatized and] acted² by gods. Pass on this Nātyaveda to those of the gods who are skilful, learned, free from stage-fright and inured to hard work.”

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⁴ The word śilpa is very often synonymous with kalā. As the 64 kalās enumerated in different works include different arts and crafts, these two words may be translated as ‘arts and crafts’. Śilpa, however, is sometimes to be distinguished from kalā; and then it may mean merely ‘a craft’.

16 (B.G. same).

17-18 (B.G. same). ¹ Vedopaveda—the Vedas and the Upavedas i.e. the Vedas principal as well as subsidiary. The Vedas are all well-known, and there are at least four Upavedas, one being attached to each of the Vedas. They are as follows: the Āyur-veda (the Science of Medicine) to the Ṛgveda, Dhanur-veda (the Science of Arms)—to the Yajurveda, Gandharva-veda (Musical Science) to the Sāmaveda, and Sthāpatya-śāstra (the Science of Architecture) to the Atharvaveda.

19-20 (B.G. same). ¹ Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra in its definition of itihāsa enumerates purāṇa and itivṛtta as belonging to its contents. An itivṛtta, according to Winternitz, can only mean an “historical event” and purāṇa probably means “mythological and legendary lore.” Vol. I. p. 518. Pargiter has, however, extracted solid historical facts from some of the

-1. 25 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 5

21-22. At these words of Brahman, Indra bowed to him with folded palms and said in reply, “O the best and holy one, gods are neither able to receive it and maintain it, nor are they fit to understand it and make use of it ; they are unfit to do anything with the drama¹.

23. The sages (muni)¹ who know the mystery of the Vedas and have fulfilled their vows, are capable of maintaining this (Nāṭyaveda) and putting it into practice.”

The Nāṭyaveda and Bharata’s one hundred sons

24. On these words of Śakra (Indra), Brahman said to me; “O the sinless one, you with your one hundred sons¹ will have to put it (the Nāṭyaveda) to use”.

25. Thus ordered, I learnt the Nāṭyaveda from Brahman

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extant Purāṇas (See his Ancient Indian Historical Traditions, London, 1922). According to the native Indian tradition itihāsa is said to be an account of events that occurred in the past, carrying in it instructions about duty, wealth, enjoyment of pleasure, and salvation. The traditional śloka is—

धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणामुपदेशसमन्वितम् । इतिवृत्तकथायुक्तमितिहासं प्रचक्षते ॥

The same tradition assigns the position of itihāsa to the Mahābhārata the great Indian epic. It is possibly this itihāsa that has been connected with the Nāṭyaveda by the author of the śāstra. Hence it appears that Oldenberg’s theory about the original connexion between epic and dramatic poetry, is worthy of serious consideration. Nāṭyākhyaṁ pañcamaṁ vedaṁ setihāsaṁ karomy aham (15) seems to be very significant. Ag. (I. p. 13) explains setihāsam as itihāsopadeśakarūpaṁ saprabhedam. See Winternitz, Vol. I. pp. 100 ff. 312 n. ² See note on 14-15 above.

21-22 (B.G. same). ¹ It may be tentatively suggested here that the gods represented the primitive Indo-Aryans who possibly had no drama. On this point see the author’s Prācīn Bhārater Nāṭya-kalā (in Bengali), Calcutta, 1945 p. 60 ff.

23 (B.G. same). ¹ The word muni is evidently to be derived from the Pkt. root muṇa ‘to know’ which is most probably not of Indo-European origin.

24 (B.G. same). ¹ The Purāṇas and similar other works totally ignore these one hundred sons of Bharata.

25 (B. G. same).

6 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 25-

and made my able sons study it as also [ learn ] its proper application.

Names of Bharata's one hundred sons

26-39. ¹[Names of my sons are]: Śāṇḍilya, Vātsya, Kohala², Dattila³, Jaṭila, Ambaṣṭhaka, Taṇḍu, Agniśikha, Saindhava, Puloman, Śāḍvali, Vipula, Kapiñjali, Bādari, Yama, Dhūmrāyaṇa, Jambudhvaja, Kākajaṅgha, Svarṇaka, Tāpasa, Kedāra, Śālikarṇa⁴, Dīrghagātra, Śālika, Kautsa, Tāṇḍāyani, Piṅgala, Citraka, Bandhula, Bhaktaka, Muṣṭika Saindavāyana Taitila, Bhārgava, Śuci, Bahula Abudha, Budhasena, Pāṇḍukarṇa, Kerala, Ṛjuka, Maṇḍaka, Śambara, Vañjula, Māgadha, Sarala, Kartṛ, Ugra, Tuṣāra, Pārṣada, Gautama, Bādarāyaṇa⁵, Viśāla, Śabala, Sunābha, Meṣa, Kāliya, Bhramara, Pīṭhamukha Muni, Nakhakuṭṭa⁶, Aśmakuṭṭa⁷, Ṣaṭpada, Uttama, Pāduka, Upānat, Śruti, Cāṣasvara, Agnikuṇḍa, Ājyakuṇḍa, Vitāṇḍya, Tāṇḍya, Kartarākṣa, Hiraṇyākṣa, Kuśala, Duḥsaha,

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26-39 (B. same; G. 26-38). ¹ B. and G. read some of these names differently. Some at least of the so-called sons of Bharata might in fact have been the authors who wrote on dramaturgy, histrionic art, dance and music etc. Śiṅgabhūpāla mention the first four. See below notes 2-7.

² Kohala has again been mentioned in NŚ. (C.) XXXVI. 65. Ag. has referred to his opinion several times and quoted from his work on nāṭya (Vol. I. pp. 140, 173, 182, 183, 285; Vol. II. pp. 26, 55, 130, 133, 142, 144, 146, 147, 151, 155, 407, 416, 421, 434, 452, 458, 459). Later writers like Dāmodaragupta, Hemacandra, Śārṅgadeva, Śāradātanaya and Śiṅgabhūpāla acknowledge him as an authority on drama and music. (See S. K. De, Skt. Poetics, p. 25. f.n.)

³ Ag. has quoted a passage from the work of one Dattilācārya (Vol. I. p. 205). He seems to be identical with this Dattila. See also note 1 above.

⁴ Śālikarṇa is probably identical with Śātakarṇa referred to and quoted in the commentary of the Anargharāghava (p. 7. see Lévi, II. pp. 27, 65) and the Nāṭakalakṣaṇa (p. 47, ed. M. Dillon). Cf. Sālivāhana = Sātavāhana.

⁵ The Nāṭakalakṣaṇa (pp. 46, 114) refers to and quotes from him.

⁶ The Nāṭakalakṣaṇa (pp. 114, 121) refers to and quotes from this authority. So does SD (295).

7. The Nāṭakalakṣaṇa (pp. 4, 19, 114, 115) refers to and quotes from this authority.

-I. 45 ] THE ORIGN OF DRAMA 7

Jāla, Bhyānaka, Bibhatsa, Vicakṣaṇa, Puṇḍrākṣa, Puṇḍranāsa, Asita, Sita, Vidyujjihva, Mahājihva, Śālaṅkāyana, Śyāmāyana, Māṭhara Lohitāṅga, Saṁvartaka, Pañcaśikha, Triśikha, Śikha, Śaṅkhavarṇamukha, Ṣaṇḍa, Śaṅkukarṇa, Śakranemi, Gabhasti, Aṁśumāli, Śaṭha, Vidyut, Śātajaṅgha, Raudra and Vīra.

39-40. [Thus] at the command of Brahman and for the benefit of the people I assigned to my sons different roles suitable to, them¹.

Performance begins with three Styles.

41. O Brahmins, I then prepared to give a performance (prayoga) in which was adopted dramatic Styles (vṛtti) such as the Verbal (bhāratī)¹, the Grand (sāttvatī), and the Energetic (ārabhaṭī).

Need of the Kaiśikī Style

42-43. ¹I [then went² to Brahman and] after bowing, informed him [of my work]. Now Brahman (lit. the guru of gods) told me to include the Graceful (kaiśikī) Style also [in my performance], and he asked me to name materials conducive to its introduction.

43-45. Thus addressed by the master I replied, "Give me materials necessary for putting the Graceful (kaiśikī) Style into practice. At the time of Nīlakaṇṭha's¹ (Śiva) dance I have seen his Graceful Style appropriate to the Erotic Sentiment, and this requires

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39-40 (B. same ; G. 39). ¹ G. reads 39b differently.

41 (B. same ; G. 40). ¹ The four Styles probably related to four tribes such as Bharata, Sāttvata, Keśika and Ārabhaṭa. Among these Bharata and Sāttvata are wellknown. The remaining two names might have been lost.

42-43 (B. same ; G. 41). ¹ G om. 42a.

² pragṛhya (=embracing) has been taken to mean 'going to'.

43-45 (B. same ; G. 42-44a). ¹ Śiva is India's traditional god of dance. See M. Ghosh (ed.) Abhinayadarpaṇa, Calcutta, 1934, English Translation, p. 1.

8 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 45-

beautiful dresses and is endowed with gentle Aṅgahāras² and has Sentiments (rasa), States (bhāva)³ and action as its soul.

Creation of Apsarasas for practising the Kaiśikī Style

46-47. This Style cannot be practised properly by men except with the help of women." Then the powerful Lord (Brahman) created from his mind nymphs (apsaras) who were skillful in embellishing the drama¹, and gave them over to me [for helping me] in the performance.

Names of Apsarasas

47-50. [Their names¹ are] : Mañjukeśī, Sukeśī, Miśrakeśī, Sulocanā, Saudāminī, Devadattā, Devasenā, Manoramā, Sudatī, Sundarī, Vidagdhā, Sumālā, Santati, Sunandā, Sumukhī, Māgadhī, Arjunī, Saralā, Keralā, Dhṛti, Nandā, Supuṣkalā and Kalabhā.

Svāti and Nārada engaged to help Bharata

50-51. And by him (Brahman) Svāti¹ together with his disciples was employed to play on musical instruments, (lit. drums) and celestical musicians (gandharva) such as, Nārada¹ and others were engaged in singing songs.²

51-53. Thus after comprehending the dramatic art (nāṭya) which arose out of the Vedas and their [different] limbs, I along with my sons as well as Svāti and Nārada approached Brahman (lit. lord of the worlds) with folded palms and

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² For aṅgahāras see NŚ. IV. 16 ff. Read mṛdvaṅgahāra for nṛttāṅga° in B. ³ For details on States see NŚ. VII.

46-47 (B. same; G. 44b-45). ¹ nāṭyālaṅkāra here may be taken also to mean nāṭyālaṅkāras mentioned in NŚ. XXIV. 4-5.

47-50 (B. 47-50a, G. 46-48). ¹ B. and G. read some of the names in a slightly different manner

50-51 (B. 50b-51a, G. 49). ¹ One Svāti has been mentioned in the Viṣṇu P. Nārada is also a well-known Purāṇic sage. He is mentioned as a musician in Bhāgavata and Vāyu P. See Vidyalankar. JK., sub voce.

² Ag. thinks gāna in this connexion means the playing of stringed instruments and flutes.

51-53 (B. 51b-53a, G. 50-51).

-I. 61 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 9

said that the dramatic art (nāṭya) has been mastered, and prayed for his command.

The Banner Festival of Indra and the first production of a play

53-55. On these words, Brahman said, “A very suitable time for the production of a play has come : the Banner Festival¹ of Indra has just begun ; make use of the Nāṭyaveda now on this occasion”.

55-58. I then went to that festival in honour of Indra's victory which took place after the Dānavas and the Asuras (enemies of the gods) were killed. In this festival where jubilant gods assembled in great numbers I performed for their satisfaction the holy¹ Benediction (nāndī) containing blessings with words in their eightfold² aspects (aṣṭāṅga, lit. of eight limbs). Afterwards I devised an imitation of the sitution in which the Daityas were defeated by gods (and), which represented [sometimes] an altercation and tumult and [sometimes] mutual cutting off and piercing [of limbs or bodies].

The pleased gods reward Bharata's party

58-61. Then Brahman as well as the other gods were pleased with the performance and gave us all sorts of gifts¹ as a token of joy that filled their mind. First of all the pleased Indra

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53-55 (B. 53b-55a ; G. 52-53). ¹ This festival occurred on the twelfth day of the bright half of the moon in the month of Bhādra. It was a very popular festival in ancient India. Aśvaghoṣa mentions it in his kāvyas. Maha, a part of the compound dhvaja-maha is simply a Pkt. form of the word makha meaning 'sacrifice' ; cf. Indra-makha.

55-58 (B. 55b-58a ; G. 54-56). ¹ Veda-sammita (veda-nirmita, G.) means 'like the Veda' i. e. 'holy'.

² The eight aspects of words are noun (nāma), verb (ākhyāta), particle (nipāta), prefix (upasarga), compound word (samāsa), secondary suffix (taddhita), euphonic combination (sandhi), nominal and verbal suffixes (vibhakti). See NŚ. XV. 4.

58-61. (B. 58b-61, G. 57-59) ¹ Making gifts to dancers, singers and actors at a performance, is a very old custom in India. Such gifts were made by rich members of the audience, while the common people enjoyed

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10	THE NATYASASTRA	[ I. 61-

(Śakra) gave his auspicious banner, then Brahman a Kuṭilaka² and Varuṇa a golden pitcher (bhṛṅgāra), Sūrya (the sun-god) gave an umbrella, Śiva success (siddhi), and Vāyu (the wind-god) a fan. Viṣṇu gave us a lion-seat (siṃhāsana), Kuvera a crown, and the goddess Sarasvatī gave visibility as well as audibility³.

62-63. ¹ The rest of the gods, and the Gandharvas, the Yakṣas, the Rākṣasas and the Pannagas (Nāgas) who were present in that assembly and were of different birth and merit, gladly gave my sons speeches suited to their different roles [in the play], States (bhāva)², Sentiments (rasa), [good physical] form, [proper] movement [of limbs] and strength as well as beautiful ornaments.

64-65. Now when the performance relating to the killing of the Daityas and the Dānavas began, the Daityas who came there [uninvited] instigated the Vighnas (malevolent spirits) with Virūpākṣa as their leader, said, "Come forward, we shall not tolerate¹ this dramatic performance."

66. Then the Vighnas (evil spirits) together with the Asuras resorted to supernatural power (māyā) and paralysed the speech, movement as well as memory of the actors.

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the performance without any payment. This old custom is now dying out under the influence of modern theatres which realise the price of the entertainment beforehand by selling tickets.

² Kuṭilaka.—Ag. takes it to mean 'a curved stick fit to be used by the Jester'. But he does not seem to be supported in this by the old dramatic literature. In Kālidāsa's Mālavī. however occur bhujaṅgama-kuṭila-daṇḍakaṭṭha and daṇḍakaṭṭha (ed. Pandit, Bombay, 1889, IV. 150, 160). But it is not clear from the context whether it belonged to the Jester. The NŚ. XXIII 167-170 describes probably this daṇḍakāṣṭha, but does not connect it with the Jester.

³ From now on the numbering of couplets is wrong in B.

62-63 (B. same; G. 60-61). ¹ B. reads 63a as दानवाः प्रहृष्टाश्च मनसुतैश्चापि दिवौकसः. ² For details on States see NŚ. VI.

64-65 (B. same; G. 62-63). ¹ na kṣamiṣyāmahe (nettham icchāmahe, B).

66 (B. same; G. 64).

-I. 78 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 11

67-68. Seeing this injury to them,¹ Indra sat in meditation to ascertain the cause of break in the performance and found out that, surrounded on all sides by the Vighnas (evil spirits), the Director (sūtradhāra) together with his associates (actors) had been rendered senseless and inert.

69-70. Then with eyes turning in anger he rose and took up that best banner staff (dhvaja), brilliant with all the jewels set in it. With this Jarjara Indra beat to death the Asuras and the Vighnas who were hanging about the stage [for mischief].

71-73. The Vighnas together with the Dānavas having been slain, all the gods said in joy. “O [Bharata,] you have got a divine weapon with which all destroyers of a play have been made jarjara (beaten to pulp). Hence it will have the name of Jarjara.¹

73-75. The remaining enemies too who may come to do violence to [actors] will fare like this.” To the gods, Indra then said with pleasure, “Let it be so : this Jarjara will be the protection of all actors.”

75-76. [And afterwards], when the play was ready and Indra's festival continued in full force, the remaining Vighnas began to create terror for the rest of the actors.

76-78. Having noticed these attempts caused by the insult of the Daityas¹ I, along with my sons, approached Brahman [and said], “O the holy one and the best of gods, the Vighnas (the evil spirits) are determined to destroy this dramatic performance ; so enlighten me about the means of its protection.”

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67-68 (B. same ; G. 65-66) ¹ tatra teṣāṁ saḥ (sūtradhārasya, B.G.)
69-70 (B. same ; G. 67-68).
71-73 (B. 71-72, 73b ; G. 69-70, 71b). ¹ This is evidently an instance of folk-etymology. We read 72b. as, नाट्याविघ्न'त्रिणः सर्वे येन ते जर्जरौकृताः : (C.) but B. G. जर्जरीकृतसर्व्वङ्गा येनैते दानवाः कृताः and adds one hemistich as follows:— यस्मादनेन ते विघ्नाः सासुराः जर्जरीकृताः.
73-75 (B. 73b-75, G. 72-78).
75-76 (B. 76, G. 74).
76-78 (B. 77-78 ; G. 75-76).
¹ daityānām (madarthe, B.)

12 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 78-

78-79. “O the high-souled one,” said Brahman then to Viśvakarman,¹ “build carefully a playhouse of the best type.”

79-81. After constructing it according to this instruction¹ he (i.e. Viśvakarman) went with folded palms to Brahman’s court [and said], “O god, please have a look at the playhouse which has [just] been made ready.” Then Brahman, along with Indra and and all other good (lit. the best) gods, went to have a view of the playhouse.

82-88. On seeing it Brahman said to the rest of gods, “You ought to co-operate in the protection of the playhouse in its several parts [and of the objects relating to dramatic performance]: Candra (the moon-god) to protect the main building; the Lokapālas (guardians of the worlds) its sides, the Maruts its four corners, Varuṇa the space [within the building], Mitra the tiring room (nepathya), Agni its plinth¹, clouds the musical instruments², deities of four Colour-groups (varṇa)³ the pillars, the Ādityas and the Rudras the space between the pillars, the Bhūtas (spirits) the rows [of seats = dhāraṇī], the Apsarasas its rooms, the Yakṣiṇīs the entire house, the ocean-god the ground, Yama the door, the two Nāga kings (Ananta and Vāsuki) the two blades of the door (dvārapatra)⁴, the Rod⁵ of Yama the door-frame, Śiva’s Pike the top of the door.

88-93. ¹ Niyati and Yama (Mṛtyu) were made two door-keepers, and Indra himself stayed by the side of the stage. In the

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78-79 (B. 79; G. 77). ¹ Viśvakarman is the architect of the gods, He is very frequently met with in the Purāṇas. There was also a Vedic deity of this name. See Vidyalankar, JK, sub voce.

79-81 (B. 81-,82; G. 79-80). ¹ Kṛtvā yathoktam evam tu gṛhaṁ padmodbhavājñayā. B. G. read in place of this hemistich a complete śloka.

82-88 (B. 83-89a; G. 81-87a). ¹ Vedikā raṅga-vedikā tatra tīkṣṇo' dhiṣṭhātetyarthaḥ (Ag.).
² bhāṇḍa iti tripuṣkare sopakaraṇe (Ag.)
³ Such deities are nowhere to be met with.
⁴ dvārapatra (dvāra-pārśve G.) ⁵ See NŚ. III. 1-8 note 5.

88-93 (B. 89b-95a; G. 87b-92a). ¹ B. reads a couplet between 91a and 91b.

-I. 99 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 13

Mattavāraṇī was placed Lightning which was capable of killing Daityas, and the protection of its pillars was entrusted to the very strong Bhūtas, Yakṣas, Piśācas and Guhyakas. In the Jarjara was posted Thunder (vajra) the destroyer of Daityas, and in its sections (parva) were stationed the best and powerful gods. In the topmost section was placed Brahman, in the second Śiva, in the third Viṣṇu, in the fourth Kārtikeya and in the fifth great Nāgas such as, Śeṣa, Vāsuki and Takṣaka.”

93-94. Thus for the destruction of the Vighnas, gods were placed in different parts of the Jarjara, and Brahman himself occupied the middle of the stage. It is for this reason¹ that flowers are scattered there [at the beginning of the performance].

95. Denizens of the nether regions such as, the Yakṣas, the Guhyakas and the Pannagas were employed to.protect the bottom of the stage.

96. Let Indra protect the actor who assumes the role of the hero, Sarasvatī¹ the actress assuming the role of the heroine, Oṃkāraḥ² the Jester and Śiva the rest of the characters (dramatis personæ).

97. He (Brahman) said that the gods who were employed to protect it (i.e. the play) would be its guardian deities.

Brahman pacifies the Vighnas

98-99. In the meanwhile gods in a body said to Brahman, “You should pacify the Vighnas by the conciliatory method (sāman). This (method) is to be applied first, and secondly the making of gifts (dāna); and (these proving futile) one should afterwards create

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93-94. (B. 95b-96 ; G. 92b-93). ¹ See NŚ. V. 74.
95 (B. 97 ; G. 94).
96 (B. 98 ; G. 95). ¹ Sarasvatī mentioned here seems to be the Vedic goddess of the same name. See Ṛk. I, 142.9 and JK. sub voce.
² Oṃkāra as a deity is very rarely to be met with.
97 (B. 99 ; G. 96).

14 . THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 100-

dissension [among enemies], and this too proving unsuccessful punitive force (daṇḍa) should be applied [for curbing them¹].

100. Hearing these words of the gods, Brahman called the evil spirits and said, “Why are you out for spoiling the dramatic performance ?”

101-103. Questioned thus by Brahman, Virūpākṣa¹ together with the Daityas and the Vighnas, said these conciliatory words: “The knowledge of the dramatic art (nāṭyaveda) which you have introduced for the first time, at the desire of the gods, has put us in an unfavourable light, and this is done by you for the sake of the gods; this ought not to have not been done by you who is the first progenitor (lit. grand-father) of the world, from whom came out alike gods as well as Daityas.”

104-105. These words being uttered by Virūpākṣa,¹ Brahman said, ‘Enough of your anger, O Daityas, give up your grievance (lit. sorrow), I have prepared this Nāṭyaveda which will determine the good luck or ill luck of you as well as of the gods, and which will take into account acts and ideas of you as well as of the Daityas.

Characteristic of a drama

106. In it (nāṭya) there is no exclusive representation of you or of the gods: for the drama is a representation of the state of the Three Worlds (bhāvānukīrtana)¹.

107. [In it] sometimes there is [reference to] duty, sometimes to games, sometimes to money, sometimes to peace, and

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98-99. (B. 100-101 ; G. 97-98). ¹ This is an ancient-Indian political maxim.
100 (B. 102 ; G. 99).
101-103 (B. 103-105 ; G. 100-102). ¹ This name occurs in Rām. and Mbh. and in some Purāṇas, but none can be identified with Virūpākṣa mentioned here. See Vidyalankar, JK. sub voce.
104-105 (B. 106-107 ; G. 103-104). ¹ For Virūpākṣa, B. reads vighnānām.
106. (B. 108 ; G. 105). ¹ A. K. Coomaraswamy has freely translated 106-109. (See MG., New York, 1936, pp. 16-17).
107. (B. 109 ; G. 106).

.I. 116 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA [ 15

sometimes laughter is found in it, sometimes fight, sometimes love-making and sometimes killing [of people].

108-109. This teaches duty to those bent on doing their duty, love to those who are eager for its fulfilment, and it chastises those who are ill-bred or unruly, promotes self-restraint in those who are disciplined, gives courage to cowards, energy to heroic persons, enlightens men of poor intellect and gives wisdom to the learned¹.

110. This gives diverson to kings, and firmness [of mind] to persons afflicted with sorrow, and [hints of acquiring] money to those who are for earning it, and it brings composure to persons agitated in mind.

111-112. The drama as I have devised, is a mimicry¹ of actions and conducts of people, which is rich in various emotions, and which depicts different situations. This will relate to actions of men good, bad and indifferent, and will give courage, amusement and happiness as well as counsel to them all.

113. The drama will thus be instructive¹ to all, through actions and States (bhāva) depicted in it, and through Sentiments, arising out of it.

114-115. It will [also] give relief to unlucky persons who are afflicted with sorrow and grief or [over]-work, and will be conducive to observance of duty (dharma) as well as to fame, long life, intellect and general good, and will educate people.

116. There is no wise maxim, no learning, no art or craft, no device, no action that is not found in the drama (nāṭya).

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108-109 (B. 110-111 ; G. 107-101). ¹ All these lay stress on the educative aspect of dramatic performances.

110 (B. 112 ; G. 109).

111-112 (B. 113-114 ; G. 110-111). ¹ Aristotle also brings in 'imitation' to explain poetry and drama (See Poetics).

113 (B. 115 ; G. 112). ¹ See above 108-109 note.

114-115 (B. 116-117 ; G. 113-114).

116 (B. 118 ; G. 115).

16 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 117-

117-118. Hence I have devised the drama in which meet all the departments of knowledge, different arts and various actions. So, (O, Daityas) you should not have any anger towards the gods; for a mimicry of the world with its Seven Divisions (sapta dvīpa)¹ has been made a rule of, in the drama.

119. ¹ Stories taken out of Vedic works as well as Semi-historical Tales (itihāsa) [so embellished that they are] capable of giving pleasure, is called drama (nāṭya).

120. ¹ A mimicry of the exploits of gods, Asuras, kings as well as house-holders in this world, is called drama.

121. And when human nature with its joys and sorrows, is depicted by means of Representation through Gestures, and the like (i.e. Words, Costume, and Temperament or Sattva) it is called drama."

Offering Pūjā to the gods of the stage

122-123. The Brahman said to all the gods, "Perform duly in the playhouse a ceremony (yajana) with offerings, Homa,¹ Mantras², (sacred) plants, Japa³: and the offerings in it should consist of eatables hard as well as soft (bhojya and bhakṣya⁴).

124. Thus this Veda (i.e. this Nāṭyaveda) will have a

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117-118 (B. 119-120; G. 116). ¹ According to the Purāṇic geography the world was divided into seven continents such as Jambu, Plakṣa, Śālmali, Kuśa, Krauñce, Śāka and Puṣkara. Each of these continents was further subdivided into nine regions, and Bhārata (India) is a region of the Jambu continent.

119 (123L-1248; G. 119) ¹ B. reads one couplet more after this.

120 (B. 121b-122a; G. 117) ¹ We read 120b as kṛtānukaraṇaṃ loke nāṭyam etad bhaviṣyati, but B. G. differently.

121 (B. 122b-123a; G. 118).

122-123 (B. 125b-127a; G. 120-121). ¹ homa—offering oblations to gods by throwing ghee into the consecrated fire.

² mantra—formula of prayer sacred to any deity.

³ Japa—repeating a mantra or muttering it many times.

⁴ खरविशदमभक्ष्यार्थं भक्ष्यमिति केचित्, खरं भटभृत्यादि विशदं मोदकादि.

-I. 125 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 17

happy adoration of the world. A dramatic spectacle (_prekṣā_¹) should not be held without offering Pūjā² to the stage.

125. He who will hold a dramatic spectacle without offering the Pūjā, will find his knowledge [of the art] useless, and he will be reborn as an animal of lower order (tiryag-yoni).

126. Hence [producers of a play] should first of all offer by all means, Pūjā to the [presiding] deity of the stage, which is similar to the [Vedic] sacrifice.

127. The actor (nartaka) or his wealthy patron (arthapati) who does not offer this Pūjā or does not cause it to be offered, will sustain a loss.

128. He who will offer this Pūjā according to the rules and the observed practice, will attain auspicious wealth and will [in the end] go to heavens."

129. Then Brahman with other gods said to me, "Let it be so, offer Pūjā to the stage."

Here ends Chapter I of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra,
which treats of the Origin of Drama.

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124 (B.127b-128a ; G.122) ¹ prekṣā Pali pekkhā occuring in Sikkhā padas (c. 600 B. C. ).

² pūjā—worshipping a deity with flowers, sweet scent, incense, music and offering of eatables.

125 (B.128b-129a, G.123).	126 (B.129b-130a, G.124).
127 (B.130b-131a, G.125)	128 (B131b-132a, G.126).
129 (B.132b-133, G.127).

CHAPTER TWO

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAYHOUSE

• Introduction

1-2 On hearing Bharata's words, the sages said, “O the holy one, we would like the hear about the ceremony relating to the stage.¹ And how are the men of future to offer Pūjā in the playhouse or [to know about] the practices related to it, or its accurate description ?

3. As the production of a drama begins with the playhouse, you should [first of all] give us its description.”

The three types of the playhouse

4. On hearing these words of the sages, Bharata said, “Listen, O sages, about the description of a playhouse¹ and of the Pūjā to be offered in this connexion.

5-6.¹ Creations of gods [observed] in houses and gardens².

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1-2 (B.G. same). ¹ raṅga here means 'the stage.' It may also mean the auditorium as well as the spectators sitting there. So Kālidāsa writes : अहो रागबद्धचित्तवृत्तिरालिखित इव सर्वतो रङ्ग : Śak. I. 4. 2. 3 (B.G. same)

4 (B.G. same). ¹. Except the cave (c. 200 B.C.) in the Ramgarh hill suspected by Th. Bloch (Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1903-4, pp.123 ff) to have been the remains of a theatre, there is no other evidence of the existence of a playhouse in ancient India. From the description of the playhouse in the present chapter we learn that it was constructed with brick walls and wooden posts probably with a thatched bungalow roof The samgīdaśālā ( samgītaśālā) mentioned by Kālidāsa in his Mālavi. was possibly something like a playhouse (nāṭyamaṇḍapa). Large open halls called nāt-mandir often found in front of more recently built temples in Bengal and the neighbouring provinces may be connected with the extinct playhouses. This nāt-mandir or nāt-śālā is often met with in the medieval Bengali literature.

5-6 (B.G. same). ¹. Between the two hemistichs of 5, B. reads one more hemistich.

². This is the reason why no description of a playhouse suitable for the gods has been given in the NŚ.

-II. 11 ] DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAYHOUSE 19

are the outcome of their [mere] will but men's [creative] activity should be carefully guided by rules [laid down in the Śāstras]. Hence, listen about the method of building a playhouse and of the manner of offering Pūjā at the site [of its construction].

7-8. There are three types of playhouses devised by the wise Viśvakarman [the heavenly architecht] in the treatise on his art (śāstra). They are oblong (vikṛṣṭa),² square (caturasra) and triangular (tryasra).

The three sizes of the playhouse

8-11. Their sizes vary : they may be large (jyeṣṭha), middle-sized (madhya) and small (avara). The length (lit. measurement) of these [three types] fixed in terms of cubits as well as Daṇḍas, is one hundred and eight, sixtyfour or thirtytwo. They² should [respectively] have [sides] one hundred and eight, sixtyfour and thirtytwo [cubits or Daṇḍas]³ long. The large playhouse is meant for gods⁴ and the middle-sized one for kings, while for the rest of people, has been prescribed the smallest [theatre].⁵

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7-8 (B.G. same).

8-11 (B.G. same). ¹ Some are for identifying the oblong, the square and the triangular types respectively with the large, the middle-sized and the small playhouses, but Ag. very rightly objects to this. He says. According एतान्येव त्रीणि ज्येष्ठादीनि इति केचित् अन्ये तु प्रत्येकं त्रित्व मिति नवैतेऽत्र भेदा इत्याहुः—एतदेव युक्तम् to Ag's view there will be the following nine types of playhouses : (i) large oblong (ii) large square, (iii) large triangular, (iv) oblong (v) medium square, (vi) medium triangular, (vii) small oblong, (viii) small square and (xi) small triangular. For a free translation of the passages in this chapter (8, 17, 19, 24-28, 33-35, 43-53, 63,68, 69-92) relating to the construction of the playhouse see D. R. Mankad, "Hindu Theatre" in IHQ. VIII. 1932. pp. 482 ff.

² They i. e. the large, the middle-sized and the small.

³ As the measurements described are both in terms of cubits and daṇḍas (4 cubits), eighteen kinds of playhouse will be available.

⁴ Ag (I. p.51) thinks that by gods, kings and other peoples mentioned in this passage characters in a play have been meant. But this view does not seem to be plausible. So the other view, mentioned by him, which takes gods and kings etc. as spectators may be accepted.

⁵ After this, B. reads three couplets which go rightly between 20 and 24. G. also holds the same view.

20 THE NĀṬYAŚĀSTRA [ II. 12-

The table of measurement

12-16. Listen now about the measurement of all these theatres, which has been fixed by Viśvakarman. Units of these measurements¹ are: Aṇu, Raja, Bāla, Likṣā, Yūkā, Yava, Aṅgula, cubit (hasta) and Daṇḍa.

8 Aṇus	=	1 Raja
8 Rajas	=	1 Bāla
8 Bālas	=	1 Likṣā
8 Likṣās	=	1 Yūkā
8 Yūkas	=	1 Yava
8 Yavas	=	1 Aṅgula
24 Aṅgulas	=	1 cubit
4 cubits	=	1 Daṇḍa.

With the preceding table of measurement I shall describe them (i.e. the different classes of playhouses).

The playhouse for mortals

17. An [oblong] playhouse meant for mortals¹ should be made sixtyfour cubits in length and thirtytwo cubits in breadth.

Disadvantage of a too big playhouse

18-19. No one should build a playhouse bigger than the above; for a play [produced] in it (i.e. a bigger house) will not be properly expressive. For anything recited or uttered in too big a playhouse will be losing euphony due to enunciated syllables being indistinct¹ [to spectators not sitting sufficiently close to the stage].

20. [Besides this] when the playhouse is very big, the expression in the face [of actors] on which rests the Representation

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12-16 (B. 15-19, G. same). ¹. The table of measurement given here agrees substantially with the one given in the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya (see IHQ. VIII. p. 482 footnote).

17 (B. 20, G. same). ¹ A medium oblong playhouse is meant here. It is described in detail later on. See 33-38, 43-45, 63-65 below.

18-19 (B. 21-22, G. same). ¹ anabhivyakta-varṇatvād. B. reads aniḥsaraṇa-dharmatvād. In spite of Ag's acceptance of this reading it may not be considered genuine.