-I. 45 ] THE ORIGN OF DRAMA 7

Jāla, Bhyānaka, Bibhatsa, Vicakṣaṇa, Puṇḍrākṣa, Puṇḍranāsa, Asita, Sita, Vidyujjihva, Mahājihva, Śālaṅkāyana, Śyāmāyana, Māṭhara Lohitāṅga, Saṁvartaka, Pañcaśikha, Triśikha, Śikha, Śaṅkhavarṇamukha, Ṣaṇḍa, Śaṅkukarṇa, Śakranemi, Gabhasti, Aṁśumāli, Śaṭha, Vidyut, Śātajaṅgha, Raudra and Vīra.

39-40. [Thus] at the command of Brahman and for the benefit of the people I assigned to my sons different roles suitable to, them¹.

Performance begins with three Styles.

41. O Brahmins, I then prepared to give a performance (prayoga) in which was adopted dramatic Styles (vṛtti) such as the Verbal (bhāratī)¹, the Grand (sāttvatī), and the Energetic (ārabhaṭī).

Need of the Kaiśikī Style

42-43. ¹I [then went² to Brahman and] after bowing, informed him [of my work]. Now Brahman (lit. the guru of gods) told me to include the Graceful (kaiśikī) Style also [in my performance], and he asked me to name materials conducive to its introduction.

43-45. Thus addressed by the master I replied, "Give me materials necessary for putting the Graceful (kaiśikī) Style into practice. At the time of Nīlakaṇṭha's¹ (Śiva) dance I have seen his Graceful Style appropriate to the Erotic Sentiment, and this requires

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39-40 (B. same ; G. 39). ¹ G. reads 39b differently.

41 (B. same ; G. 40). ¹ The four Styles probably related to four tribes such as Bharata, Sāttvata, Keśika and Ārabhaṭa. Among these Bharata and Sāttvata are wellknown. The remaining two names might have been lost.

42-43 (B. same ; G. 41). ¹ G om. 42a.

² pragṛhya (=embracing) has been taken to mean 'going to'.

43-45 (B. same ; G. 42-44a). ¹ Śiva is India's traditional god of dance. See M. Ghosh (ed.) Abhinayadarpaṇa, Calcutta, 1934, English Translation, p. 1.

8 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 45-

beautiful dresses and is endowed with gentle Aṅgahāras² and has Sentiments (rasa), States (bhāva)³ and action as its soul.

Creation of Apsarasas for practising the Kaiśikī Style

46-47. This Style cannot be practised properly by men except with the help of women." Then the powerful Lord (Brahman) created from his mind nymphs (apsaras) who were skillful in embellishing the drama¹, and gave them over to me [for helping me] in the performance.

Names of Apsarasas

47-50. [Their names¹ are] : Mañjukeśī, Sukeśī, Miśrakeśī, Sulocanā, Saudāminī, Devadattā, Devasenā, Manoramā, Sudatī, Sundarī, Vidagdhā, Sumālā, Santati, Sunandā, Sumukhī, Māgadhī, Arjunī, Saralā, Keralā, Dhṛti, Nandā, Supuṣkalā and Kalabhā.

Svāti and Nārada engaged to help Bharata

50-51. And by him (Brahman) Svāti¹ together with his disciples was employed to play on musical instruments, (lit. drums) and celestical musicians (gandharva) such as, Nārada¹ and others were engaged in singing songs.²

51-53. Thus after comprehending the dramatic art (nāṭya) which arose out of the Vedas and their [different] limbs, I along with my sons as well as Svāti and Nārada approached Brahman (lit. lord of the worlds) with folded palms and

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² For aṅgahāras see NŚ. IV. 16 ff. Read mṛdvaṅgahāra for nṛttāṅga° in B. ³ For details on States see NŚ. VII.

46-47 (B. same; G. 44b-45). ¹ nāṭyālaṅkāra here may be taken also to mean nāṭyālaṅkāras mentioned in NŚ. XXIV. 4-5.

47-50 (B. 47-50a, G. 46-48). ¹ B. and G. read some of the names in a slightly different manner

50-51 (B. 50b-51a, G. 49). ¹ One Svāti has been mentioned in the Viṣṇu P. Nārada is also a well-known Purāṇic sage. He is mentioned as a musician in Bhāgavata and Vāyu P. See Vidyalankar. JK., sub voce.

² Ag. thinks gāna in this connexion means the playing of stringed instruments and flutes.

51-53 (B. 51b-53a, G. 50-51).

-I. 61 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 9

said that the dramatic art (nāṭya) has been mastered, and prayed for his command.

The Banner Festival of Indra and the first production of a play

53-55. On these words, Brahman said, “A very suitable time for the production of a play has come : the Banner Festival¹ of Indra has just begun ; make use of the Nāṭyaveda now on this occasion”.

55-58. I then went to that festival in honour of Indra's victory which took place after the Dānavas and the Asuras (enemies of the gods) were killed. In this festival where jubilant gods assembled in great numbers I performed for their satisfaction the holy¹ Benediction (nāndī) containing blessings with words in their eightfold² aspects (aṣṭāṅga, lit. of eight limbs). Afterwards I devised an imitation of the sitution in which the Daityas were defeated by gods (and), which represented [sometimes] an altercation and tumult and [sometimes] mutual cutting off and piercing [of limbs or bodies].

The pleased gods reward Bharata's party

58-61. Then Brahman as well as the other gods were pleased with the performance and gave us all sorts of gifts¹ as a token of joy that filled their mind. First of all the pleased Indra

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53-55 (B. 53b-55a ; G. 52-53). ¹ This festival occurred on the twelfth day of the bright half of the moon in the month of Bhādra. It was a very popular festival in ancient India. Aśvaghoṣa mentions it in his kāvyas. Maha, a part of the compound dhvaja-maha is simply a Pkt. form of the word makha meaning 'sacrifice' ; cf. Indra-makha.

55-58 (B. 55b-58a ; G. 54-56). ¹ Veda-sammita (veda-nirmita, G.) means 'like the Veda' i. e. 'holy'.

² The eight aspects of words are noun (nāma), verb (ākhyāta), particle (nipāta), prefix (upasarga), compound word (samāsa), secondary suffix (taddhita), euphonic combination (sandhi), nominal and verbal suffixes (vibhakti). See NŚ. XV. 4.

58-61. (B. 58b-61, G. 57-59) ¹ Making gifts to dancers, singers and actors at a performance, is a very old custom in India. Such gifts were made by rich members of the audience, while the common people enjoyed

2

10	THE NATYASASTRA	[ I. 61-

(Śakra) gave his auspicious banner, then Brahman a Kuṭilaka² and Varuṇa a golden pitcher (bhṛṅgāra), Sūrya (the sun-god) gave an umbrella, Śiva success (siddhi), and Vāyu (the wind-god) a fan. Viṣṇu gave us a lion-seat (siṃhāsana), Kuvera a crown, and the goddess Sarasvatī gave visibility as well as audibility³.

62-63. ¹ The rest of the gods, and the Gandharvas, the Yakṣas, the Rākṣasas and the Pannagas (Nāgas) who were present in that assembly and were of different birth and merit, gladly gave my sons speeches suited to their different roles [in the play], States (bhāva)², Sentiments (rasa), [good physical] form, [proper] movement [of limbs] and strength as well as beautiful ornaments.

64-65. Now when the performance relating to the killing of the Daityas and the Dānavas began, the Daityas who came there [uninvited] instigated the Vighnas (malevolent spirits) with Virūpākṣa as their leader, said, "Come forward, we shall not tolerate¹ this dramatic performance."

66. Then the Vighnas (evil spirits) together with the Asuras resorted to supernatural power (māyā) and paralysed the speech, movement as well as memory of the actors.

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the performance without any payment. This old custom is now dying out under the influence of modern theatres which realise the price of the entertainment beforehand by selling tickets.

² Kuṭilaka.—Ag. takes it to mean 'a curved stick fit to be used by the Jester'. But he does not seem to be supported in this by the old dramatic literature. In Kālidāsa's Mālavī. however occur bhujaṅgama-kuṭila-daṇḍakaṭṭha and daṇḍakaṭṭha (ed. Pandit, Bombay, 1889, IV. 150, 160). But it is not clear from the context whether it belonged to the Jester. The NŚ. XXIII 167-170 describes probably this daṇḍakāṣṭha, but does not connect it with the Jester.

³ From now on the numbering of couplets is wrong in B.

62-63 (B. same; G. 60-61). ¹ B. reads 63a as दानवाः प्रहृष्टाश्च मनसुतैश्चापि दिवौकसः. ² For details on States see NŚ. VI.

64-65 (B. same; G. 62-63). ¹ na kṣamiṣyāmahe (nettham icchāmahe, B).

66 (B. same; G. 64).

-I. 78 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 11

67-68. Seeing this injury to them,¹ Indra sat in meditation to ascertain the cause of break in the performance and found out that, surrounded on all sides by the Vighnas (evil spirits), the Director (sūtradhāra) together with his associates (actors) had been rendered senseless and inert.

69-70. Then with eyes turning in anger he rose and took up that best banner staff (dhvaja), brilliant with all the jewels set in it. With this Jarjara Indra beat to death the Asuras and the Vighnas who were hanging about the stage [for mischief].

71-73. The Vighnas together with the Dānavas having been slain, all the gods said in joy. “O [Bharata,] you have got a divine weapon with which all destroyers of a play have been made jarjara (beaten to pulp). Hence it will have the name of Jarjara.¹

73-75. The remaining enemies too who may come to do violence to [actors] will fare like this.” To the gods, Indra then said with pleasure, “Let it be so : this Jarjara will be the protection of all actors.”

75-76. [And afterwards], when the play was ready and Indra's festival continued in full force, the remaining Vighnas began to create terror for the rest of the actors.

76-78. Having noticed these attempts caused by the insult of the Daityas¹ I, along with my sons, approached Brahman [and said], “O the holy one and the best of gods, the Vighnas (the evil spirits) are determined to destroy this dramatic performance ; so enlighten me about the means of its protection.”

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67-68 (B. same ; G. 65-66) ¹ tatra teṣāṁ saḥ (sūtradhārasya, B.G.)
69-70 (B. same ; G. 67-68).
71-73 (B. 71-72, 73b ; G. 69-70, 71b). ¹ This is evidently an instance of folk-etymology. We read 72b. as, नाट्याविघ्न'त्रिणः सर्वे येन ते जर्जरौकृताः : (C.) but B. G. जर्जरीकृतसर्व्वङ्गा येनैते दानवाः कृताः and adds one hemistich as follows:— यस्मादनेन ते विघ्नाः सासुराः जर्जरीकृताः.
73-75 (B. 73b-75, G. 72-78).
75-76 (B. 76, G. 74).
76-78 (B. 77-78 ; G. 75-76).
¹ daityānām (madarthe, B.)

12 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 78-

78-79. “O the high-souled one,” said Brahman then to Viśvakarman,¹ “build carefully a playhouse of the best type.”

79-81. After constructing it according to this instruction¹ he (i.e. Viśvakarman) went with folded palms to Brahman’s court [and said], “O god, please have a look at the playhouse which has [just] been made ready.” Then Brahman, along with Indra and and all other good (lit. the best) gods, went to have a view of the playhouse.

82-88. On seeing it Brahman said to the rest of gods, “You ought to co-operate in the protection of the playhouse in its several parts [and of the objects relating to dramatic performance]: Candra (the moon-god) to protect the main building; the Lokapālas (guardians of the worlds) its sides, the Maruts its four corners, Varuṇa the space [within the building], Mitra the tiring room (nepathya), Agni its plinth¹, clouds the musical instruments², deities of four Colour-groups (varṇa)³ the pillars, the Ādityas and the Rudras the space between the pillars, the Bhūtas (spirits) the rows [of seats = dhāraṇī], the Apsarasas its rooms, the Yakṣiṇīs the entire house, the ocean-god the ground, Yama the door, the two Nāga kings (Ananta and Vāsuki) the two blades of the door (dvārapatra)⁴, the Rod⁵ of Yama the door-frame, Śiva’s Pike the top of the door.

88-93. ¹ Niyati and Yama (Mṛtyu) were made two door-keepers, and Indra himself stayed by the side of the stage. In the

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78-79 (B. 79; G. 77). ¹ Viśvakarman is the architect of the gods, He is very frequently met with in the Purāṇas. There was also a Vedic deity of this name. See Vidyalankar, JK, sub voce.

79-81 (B. 81-,82; G. 79-80). ¹ Kṛtvā yathoktam evam tu gṛhaṁ padmodbhavājñayā. B. G. read in place of this hemistich a complete śloka.

82-88 (B. 83-89a; G. 81-87a). ¹ Vedikā raṅga-vedikā tatra tīkṣṇo' dhiṣṭhātetyarthaḥ (Ag.).
² bhāṇḍa iti tripuṣkare sopakaraṇe (Ag.)
³ Such deities are nowhere to be met with.
⁴ dvārapatra (dvāra-pārśve G.) ⁵ See NŚ. III. 1-8 note 5.

88-93 (B. 89b-95a; G. 87b-92a). ¹ B. reads a couplet between 91a and 91b.

-I. 99 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 13

Mattavāraṇī was placed Lightning which was capable of killing Daityas, and the protection of its pillars was entrusted to the very strong Bhūtas, Yakṣas, Piśācas and Guhyakas. In the Jarjara was posted Thunder (vajra) the destroyer of Daityas, and in its sections (parva) were stationed the best and powerful gods. In the topmost section was placed Brahman, in the second Śiva, in the third Viṣṇu, in the fourth Kārtikeya and in the fifth great Nāgas such as, Śeṣa, Vāsuki and Takṣaka.”

93-94. Thus for the destruction of the Vighnas, gods were placed in different parts of the Jarjara, and Brahman himself occupied the middle of the stage. It is for this reason¹ that flowers are scattered there [at the beginning of the performance].

95. Denizens of the nether regions such as, the Yakṣas, the Guhyakas and the Pannagas were employed to.protect the bottom of the stage.

96. Let Indra protect the actor who assumes the role of the hero, Sarasvatī¹ the actress assuming the role of the heroine, Oṃkāraḥ² the Jester and Śiva the rest of the characters (dramatis personæ).

97. He (Brahman) said that the gods who were employed to protect it (i.e. the play) would be its guardian deities.

Brahman pacifies the Vighnas

98-99. In the meanwhile gods in a body said to Brahman, “You should pacify the Vighnas by the conciliatory method (sāman). This (method) is to be applied first, and secondly the making of gifts (dāna); and (these proving futile) one should afterwards create

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93-94. (B. 95b-96 ; G. 92b-93). ¹ See NŚ. V. 74.
95 (B. 97 ; G. 94).
96 (B. 98 ; G. 95). ¹ Sarasvatī mentioned here seems to be the Vedic goddess of the same name. See Ṛk. I, 142.9 and JK. sub voce.
² Oṃkāra as a deity is very rarely to be met with.
97 (B. 99 ; G. 96).

14 . THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 100-

dissension [among enemies], and this too proving unsuccessful punitive force (daṇḍa) should be applied [for curbing them¹].

100. Hearing these words of the gods, Brahman called the evil spirits and said, “Why are you out for spoiling the dramatic performance ?”

101-103. Questioned thus by Brahman, Virūpākṣa¹ together with the Daityas and the Vighnas, said these conciliatory words: “The knowledge of the dramatic art (nāṭyaveda) which you have introduced for the first time, at the desire of the gods, has put us in an unfavourable light, and this is done by you for the sake of the gods; this ought not to have not been done by you who is the first progenitor (lit. grand-father) of the world, from whom came out alike gods as well as Daityas.”

104-105. These words being uttered by Virūpākṣa,¹ Brahman said, ‘Enough of your anger, O Daityas, give up your grievance (lit. sorrow), I have prepared this Nāṭyaveda which will determine the good luck or ill luck of you as well as of the gods, and which will take into account acts and ideas of you as well as of the Daityas.

Characteristic of a drama

106. In it (nāṭya) there is no exclusive representation of you or of the gods: for the drama is a representation of the state of the Three Worlds (bhāvānukīrtana)¹.

107. [In it] sometimes there is [reference to] duty, sometimes to games, sometimes to money, sometimes to peace, and

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98-99. (B. 100-101 ; G. 97-98). ¹ This is an ancient-Indian political maxim.
100 (B. 102 ; G. 99).
101-103 (B. 103-105 ; G. 100-102). ¹ This name occurs in Rām. and Mbh. and in some Purāṇas, but none can be identified with Virūpākṣa mentioned here. See Vidyalankar, JK. sub voce.
104-105 (B. 106-107 ; G. 103-104). ¹ For Virūpākṣa, B. reads vighnānām.
106. (B. 108 ; G. 105). ¹ A. K. Coomaraswamy has freely translated 106-109. (See MG., New York, 1936, pp. 16-17).
107. (B. 109 ; G. 106).

.I. 116 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA [ 15

sometimes laughter is found in it, sometimes fight, sometimes love-making and sometimes killing [of people].

108-109. This teaches duty to those bent on doing their duty, love to those who are eager for its fulfilment, and it chastises those who are ill-bred or unruly, promotes self-restraint in those who are disciplined, gives courage to cowards, energy to heroic persons, enlightens men of poor intellect and gives wisdom to the learned¹.

110. This gives diverson to kings, and firmness [of mind] to persons afflicted with sorrow, and [hints of acquiring] money to those who are for earning it, and it brings composure to persons agitated in mind.

111-112. The drama as I have devised, is a mimicry¹ of actions and conducts of people, which is rich in various emotions, and which depicts different situations. This will relate to actions of men good, bad and indifferent, and will give courage, amusement and happiness as well as counsel to them all.

113. The drama will thus be instructive¹ to all, through actions and States (bhāva) depicted in it, and through Sentiments, arising out of it.

114-115. It will [also] give relief to unlucky persons who are afflicted with sorrow and grief or [over]-work, and will be conducive to observance of duty (dharma) as well as to fame, long life, intellect and general good, and will educate people.

116. There is no wise maxim, no learning, no art or craft, no device, no action that is not found in the drama (nāṭya).

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108-109 (B. 110-111 ; G. 107-101). ¹ All these lay stress on the educative aspect of dramatic performances.

110 (B. 112 ; G. 109).

111-112 (B. 113-114 ; G. 110-111). ¹ Aristotle also brings in 'imitation' to explain poetry and drama (See Poetics).

113 (B. 115 ; G. 112). ¹ See above 108-109 note.

114-115 (B. 116-117 ; G. 113-114).

116 (B. 118 ; G. 115).

16 THE NATYASASTRA [ I. 117-

117-118. Hence I have devised the drama in which meet all the departments of knowledge, different arts and various actions. So, (O, Daityas) you should not have any anger towards the gods; for a mimicry of the world with its Seven Divisions (sapta dvīpa)¹ has been made a rule of, in the drama.

119. ¹ Stories taken out of Vedic works as well as Semi-historical Tales (itihāsa) [so embellished that they are] capable of giving pleasure, is called drama (nāṭya).

120. ¹ A mimicry of the exploits of gods, Asuras, kings as well as house-holders in this world, is called drama.

121. And when human nature with its joys and sorrows, is depicted by means of Representation through Gestures, and the like (i.e. Words, Costume, and Temperament or Sattva) it is called drama."

Offering Pūjā to the gods of the stage

122-123. The Brahman said to all the gods, "Perform duly in the playhouse a ceremony (yajana) with offerings, Homa,¹ Mantras², (sacred) plants, Japa³: and the offerings in it should consist of eatables hard as well as soft (bhojya and bhakṣya⁴).

124. Thus this Veda (i.e. this Nāṭyaveda) will have a

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117-118 (B. 119-120; G. 116). ¹ According to the Purāṇic geography the world was divided into seven continents such as Jambu, Plakṣa, Śālmali, Kuśa, Krauñce, Śāka and Puṣkara. Each of these continents was further subdivided into nine regions, and Bhārata (India) is a region of the Jambu continent.

119 (123L-1248; G. 119) ¹ B. reads one couplet more after this.

120 (B. 121b-122a; G. 117) ¹ We read 120b as kṛtānukaraṇaṃ loke nāṭyam etad bhaviṣyati, but B. G. differently.

121 (B. 122b-123a; G. 118).

122-123 (B. 125b-127a; G. 120-121). ¹ homa—offering oblations to gods by throwing ghee into the consecrated fire.

² mantra—formula of prayer sacred to any deity.

³ Japa—repeating a mantra or muttering it many times.

⁴ खरविशदमभक्ष्यार्थं भक्ष्यमिति केचित्, खरं भटभृत्यादि विशदं मोदकादि.

-I. 125 ] THE ORIGIN OF DRAMA 17

happy adoration of the world. A dramatic spectacle (_prekṣā_¹) should not be held without offering Pūjā² to the stage.

125. He who will hold a dramatic spectacle without offering the Pūjā, will find his knowledge [of the art] useless, and he will be reborn as an animal of lower order (tiryag-yoni).

126. Hence [producers of a play] should first of all offer by all means, Pūjā to the [presiding] deity of the stage, which is similar to the [Vedic] sacrifice.

127. The actor (nartaka) or his wealthy patron (arthapati) who does not offer this Pūjā or does not cause it to be offered, will sustain a loss.

128. He who will offer this Pūjā according to the rules and the observed practice, will attain auspicious wealth and will [in the end] go to heavens."

129. Then Brahman with other gods said to me, "Let it be so, offer Pūjā to the stage."

Here ends Chapter I of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra,
which treats of the Origin of Drama.

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124 (B.127b-128a ; G.122) ¹ prekṣā Pali pekkhā occuring in Sikkhā padas (c. 600 B. C. ).

² pūjā—worshipping a deity with flowers, sweet scent, incense, music and offering of eatables.

125 (B.128b-129a, G.123).	126 (B.129b-130a, G.124).
127 (B.130b-131a, G.125)	128 (B131b-132a, G.126).
129 (B.132b-133, G.127).

CHAPTER TWO

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAYHOUSE

• Introduction

1-2 On hearing Bharata's words, the sages said, “O the holy one, we would like the hear about the ceremony relating to the stage.¹ And how are the men of future to offer Pūjā in the playhouse or [to know about] the practices related to it, or its accurate description ?

3. As the production of a drama begins with the playhouse, you should [first of all] give us its description.”

The three types of the playhouse

4. On hearing these words of the sages, Bharata said, “Listen, O sages, about the description of a playhouse¹ and of the Pūjā to be offered in this connexion.

5-6.¹ Creations of gods [observed] in houses and gardens².

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1-2 (B.G. same). ¹ raṅga here means 'the stage.' It may also mean the auditorium as well as the spectators sitting there. So Kālidāsa writes : अहो रागबद्धचित्तवृत्तिरालिखित इव सर्वतो रङ्ग : Śak. I. 4. 2. 3 (B.G. same)

4 (B.G. same). ¹. Except the cave (c. 200 B.C.) in the Ramgarh hill suspected by Th. Bloch (Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1903-4, pp.123 ff) to have been the remains of a theatre, there is no other evidence of the existence of a playhouse in ancient India. From the description of the playhouse in the present chapter we learn that it was constructed with brick walls and wooden posts probably with a thatched bungalow roof The samgīdaśālā ( samgītaśālā) mentioned by Kālidāsa in his Mālavi. was possibly something like a playhouse (nāṭyamaṇḍapa). Large open halls called nāt-mandir often found in front of more recently built temples in Bengal and the neighbouring provinces may be connected with the extinct playhouses. This nāt-mandir or nāt-śālā is often met with in the medieval Bengali literature.

5-6 (B.G. same). ¹. Between the two hemistichs of 5, B. reads one more hemistich.

². This is the reason why no description of a playhouse suitable for the gods has been given in the NŚ.

-II. 11 ] DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAYHOUSE 19

are the outcome of their [mere] will but men's [creative] activity should be carefully guided by rules [laid down in the Śāstras]. Hence, listen about the method of building a playhouse and of the manner of offering Pūjā at the site [of its construction].

7-8. There are three types of playhouses devised by the wise Viśvakarman [the heavenly architecht] in the treatise on his art (śāstra). They are oblong (vikṛṣṭa),² square (caturasra) and triangular (tryasra).

The three sizes of the playhouse

8-11. Their sizes vary : they may be large (jyeṣṭha), middle-sized (madhya) and small (avara). The length (lit. measurement) of these [three types] fixed in terms of cubits as well as Daṇḍas, is one hundred and eight, sixtyfour or thirtytwo. They² should [respectively] have [sides] one hundred and eight, sixtyfour and thirtytwo [cubits or Daṇḍas]³ long. The large playhouse is meant for gods⁴ and the middle-sized one for kings, while for the rest of people, has been prescribed the smallest [theatre].⁵

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7-8 (B.G. same).

8-11 (B.G. same). ¹ Some are for identifying the oblong, the square and the triangular types respectively with the large, the middle-sized and the small playhouses, but Ag. very rightly objects to this. He says. According एतान्येव त्रीणि ज्येष्ठादीनि इति केचित् अन्ये तु प्रत्येकं त्रित्व मिति नवैतेऽत्र भेदा इत्याहुः—एतदेव युक्तम् to Ag's view there will be the following nine types of playhouses : (i) large oblong (ii) large square, (iii) large triangular, (iv) oblong (v) medium square, (vi) medium triangular, (vii) small oblong, (viii) small square and (xi) small triangular. For a free translation of the passages in this chapter (8, 17, 19, 24-28, 33-35, 43-53, 63,68, 69-92) relating to the construction of the playhouse see D. R. Mankad, "Hindu Theatre" in IHQ. VIII. 1932. pp. 482 ff.

² They i. e. the large, the middle-sized and the small.

³ As the measurements described are both in terms of cubits and daṇḍas (4 cubits), eighteen kinds of playhouse will be available.

⁴ Ag (I. p.51) thinks that by gods, kings and other peoples mentioned in this passage characters in a play have been meant. But this view does not seem to be plausible. So the other view, mentioned by him, which takes gods and kings etc. as spectators may be accepted.

⁵ After this, B. reads three couplets which go rightly between 20 and 24. G. also holds the same view.

20 THE NĀṬYAŚĀSTRA [ II. 12-

The table of measurement

12-16. Listen now about the measurement of all these theatres, which has been fixed by Viśvakarman. Units of these measurements¹ are: Aṇu, Raja, Bāla, Likṣā, Yūkā, Yava, Aṅgula, cubit (hasta) and Daṇḍa.

8 Aṇus	=	1 Raja
8 Rajas	=	1 Bāla
8 Bālas	=	1 Likṣā
8 Likṣās	=	1 Yūkā
8 Yūkas	=	1 Yava
8 Yavas	=	1 Aṅgula
24 Aṅgulas	=	1 cubit
4 cubits	=	1 Daṇḍa.

With the preceding table of measurement I shall describe them (i.e. the different classes of playhouses).

The playhouse for mortals

17. An [oblong] playhouse meant for mortals¹ should be made sixtyfour cubits in length and thirtytwo cubits in breadth.

Disadvantage of a too big playhouse

18-19. No one should build a playhouse bigger than the above; for a play [produced] in it (i.e. a bigger house) will not be properly expressive. For anything recited or uttered in too big a playhouse will be losing euphony due to enunciated syllables being indistinct¹ [to spectators not sitting sufficiently close to the stage].

20. [Besides this] when the playhouse is very big, the expression in the face [of actors] on which rests the Representation

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12-16 (B. 15-19, G. same). ¹. The table of measurement given here agrees substantially with the one given in the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya (see IHQ. VIII. p. 482 footnote).

17 (B. 20, G. same). ¹ A medium oblong playhouse is meant here. It is described in detail later on. See 33-38, 43-45, 63-65 below.

18-19 (B. 21-22, G. same). ¹ anabhivyakta-varṇatvād. B. reads aniḥsaraṇa-dharmatvād. In spite of Ag's acceptance of this reading it may not be considered genuine.

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22 THE NATYASASTRA [ 1. 28-

27-28. Under the asterism Puṣyā (Cancri) he should spread [for measurement] a piece of white string which may be made of cotton, wool, Muñjā grass or bark of some tree.

Taking up the string

28-31. Wise people should prepare for this purpose a string which is not liable to break. When the string is broken into two [pieces] the patron¹ [of the dramatic spectacle] will surely die. When it is broken into three a political disorder will occur in the land, and it being broken into four pièces the master of the dramatic art² will perish, while if the string slips out of the hand some other kind of loss will be the result. Hence it is desired that the string should always be taken and held with [great] care. Besides this the measurement of ground for the playhouse should be carefully made.

32-33. And at a favourable moment which occurs in a (happy) Tithi¹ during its good part (su-karaṇa)² he should get the auspicious day declared after the Brahmins have been satisfied [with gifts]. Then he should spread the string after sprinkling on it the propitiating water.³

The ground plan of the playhouse

33-35. Afterwards he should measure a plot of land sixty-four cubits [long]¹ and divide the same [lengthwise] into two [equal] parts. The part which will be behind him (i.e. at his back) will have to be divided again into two equal halves. Of these halves one [behind him] should be again divided equally into two parts, one of which will be made the stage (raṅga-śīrṣa) and the part at back the tiring room (nepathya).

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27-28 (B. 33b-34a, G. 30b-31a).

28-31 (B. 34b-37, G. 31b-34). ¹ svāminaḥ = prekṣāpateḥ. Ag.
² prayoktur = nāṭyācāryasya. (Ag.)

32-33 (B. 38-39a, G. 35). ¹ tithi—a lunar day.
² karaṇa—a half of a lunar day, see below 43-45 note.
³ G. omits 33a.

33-35 (B. 39b-41a, G. 36-37). ¹ See 17 above and the note 1 on it.

-II. 41 ] DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAYHOUSE 23

The ceremony of laying the foundation

35-37. Having divided the plot of land according to rules laid down before, he should lay in it the foundation of the playhouse. And during this ceremony [of laying the foundation] all the musical instruments such as, conchshell, Dundubhi¹, Mṛdaṅga², and Paṇava³ should be sounded.

37-38. And from the places for the ceremony, undesirable persons such as heretics, including Śramaṇas¹, men in dark red (kāṣāya)² robes as well as men with physical defects, should be turned out.

38-39. At night, offerings should be made in all the ten directions [to various gods guarding them] and these offerings should consist of sweet scent, flowers, fruits and etables of various other kinds.

39-41. The food-stuff offered in the four [cardinal] directions east, west, south and north, should respectively be of white, blue, yellow and red colour. Offerings preceded by [the muttering .

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35-37 (B.41b-43a, G.38-49). ¹ dundubhi—a kind of drum.
² mṛdaṅga—a kind of earthen drum.
³ paṇava—a small drum or tabor.

37-38 (B.43b-44a, G.40). ¹ pāṣaṇḍa.—This word has a very curious history. Derived originaly from pārṣada (meaning 'assembly' or 'community') its Pkt from was *passada or *passaḍa or pāsaḍa. The form pāsaḍa with spontaneous nasalization of the second vowel gave rise to Aśokan pasaṃḍa (Seventh Pillar Edict, Delhi-Topra), which is the basis of Skt. pāṣaṇḍa in the sense of 'heretic'. It may be mentioned here that in Aśokan Pkt. the word meant simply a 'community' and not a 'heretical community'. One of the very early indications of disfavour to heretics is to be found in the fourth book (ch. 18) of the Viṣṇu P. See Winternitz, Vol. I. p. 551.
² B. reads śramiṇa, but G. śramaṇa, the word means Jain monks. See NŚ. XVIII. 36 note 2.
³ kāṣāya-vasana—men in kāṣāya or robe of dark red colour ; such people being Buddhist monks who accepted the vow of celebacy, were considered an evil omen, for they symbolised unproductivity and want of wordly success etc. See also NŚ. XVIII, 36 note 2.

38-39 (B.44b-45a, G.41)      39-41 (B.45b-47a, G.42-43)

24	THE NATYASASTRA	[ II. 41

of] Mantras should be made in [all the ten] different directions to deities presiding over them.

• 41-42. At [the time of laying] the foundation ghee¹ and Pāyasa² should be offered to Brahmins, Madhuparka³ to the king, and rice with molasses (guda) to masters [of dramatic art].

42-43. The foundation should be laid during the auspicious part of a happy Tithi under the asterism Mūlā (Lambda-Scorpionis).

Raising pillars of the playhouse

43-45. After it has been laid, walls should be built and these having been completed, pillars within the playhouse should be raised in an [auspicious] Tithi and Karaṇa which are under a good asterism. This [raising of pillars] ought to be made under the asterism Rohiṇī (Aldebaran) or Śravaṇā (Aquillae) [which are considered auspicious for the purpose].

45-46. The master [of dramatic art], after he has fasted for three [days and] nights, is to raise the pillars in an auspicious moment at dawn.

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41-42 (B.47b-48a, G.44). ¹ ghee—clarified butter.

² pāyasa—rice cooked in milk with sugar. It is a kind of rice-porridge.

³ madhuparka—‘a mixture of honey’ ; a respectful offering prescribed to be made to an honourable person in Vedic times, and this custom still lingers in ceremonies like marriage. Its ingredients are five : curd (dadhi) ghee (sarpis), water (jala), honey (kṣaudra) and white sugar (sitā).

42-43 (B.48b-49a, G.45).

43-45 (B.49b-51a, G.45-47). ¹ karaṇa—half of the lunar day (tithi). They are eleven in number viz.—(1) vava, (2) vālava, (3) kaulava, (4) taitila, (5) gara, (6) vaṇija, (7) viṣṭi, (8) śakuni, (9) catuṣpada, (10) nāga and (11) kintughna, and of these the first seven are counted from the second half of the first day of the śukla-pakṣa (bright half of the moon) to the first half of the fourteenth day of the kṛṣṇa-pakṣa (dark half of the moon). They occur eight times in a month. The remaining karaṇas occur in the remaining duration of tithis and appear only once in a month. See Sūryasiddhānta—II. 67-68.

45-46 (B.51b-52a, G.48).

-II. 57 ] DESCRIPTION OF THE PLAYHOUSE 25

46-50. ¹In the beginning, the ceremony in connexion with the Brahmin pillar should be performed with completely white,² articles purified with ghee and mustard seed, and in this ceremony Pāyasa should be distributed [to Brahmins]. In case of the Kṣatriya pillar, the ceremony should be performed with cloth, garland and unguent which should all be of red³ colour, and during the ceremony rice mixed with molasses (guḍa) should be given to the twice-born caste. The Vaiśya pillar should be raised in the north-western direction of the playhouse and [at the ceremony of its raising] completely yellow⁴ articles should be used and Brahmins should be given rice with ghee. And in case of the Śūdra pillar, which is to be raised in the north-eastern direction, articles used in offering should all be of blue⁵ colour, and the twice-born caste should be fed with Kṛsarā.

50-53. First of all, in case of the Brahmin pillar, white garlands and unguent as well as gold from an ear-ornament should be thrown at its foot, while copper, silver and iron are respectively to be thrown at the feet of the Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra pillars. Besides this, gold should be thrown at the feet of the rest [of pillars].

53-54. The placing of pillars should be preceded by the display of garlands of [green] leaves [of mango trees around them], and the utterance of 'Let it be well' (svasti) and 'Let this be an auspicious day' (puṇyāha).

54-57. After pleasing the Brahmins with considerable (analpa) gift of jewels, cows and cloths, pillars should be raised

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46-50 (B.52b-56a, G.50-53). ¹ before 46, G. reads on the strength of a single ms. one couplet as follows :—चन्दनं च मनेद् ब्राह्मं चार्तं खादिरमेव च । पलाशं वैश्यवर्णं स्याच् छूद्रं सर्वद्रुमैः कृतम् ॥ This interpolation seems to record the tradition that the pillars should be considered as wooden.

² white—symbol of purity and learning, associated with the Brahmins.

³ red—symbol of energy and strength, associated with the Kṣatriyas.

⁴ yellow—symbol of wealth (gold) associated with the Vaiśyas.

⁵ blue—symbol of non-Aryan origin associated with the Śūdras.

50-53 (B.56b-58a, G.54-56). 53-54 (B.59b-60a, G.57) ·

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