वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

192 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. idea of the sun dropping from heaven is very common in the sacrificial literature. Thus in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (IV, 18) we read, "The gods, being afraid of his (sun's) falling beyond them being turned upside down, supported him by placing above him the highest worlds";* and the same idea is met with in the Tâṇḍya Brâhmaṇa (IV, 5, 9-11). The words "falling beyond" (parâchas atipâtât) are very important, inasmuch as they show that the sun dropped into regions that were on the yonder side. One of the Ashvin's protege is also called Chyavâna, which word Prof. Max Muller derives from chyu to drop. The Ashvins are said to have restored him to youth, which, being divested of its legendary form, means the rehabilitation of the sun that had dropped into the nether world. The Pravargya ceremony, which preserves the seed of the sacrifice, is, therefore, only one phase of the story of the dropping sun in the sacrificial literature, and the verses employed in this ceremony, if interpreted in the spirit of that ceremony, appear, as stated above, to indicate an older year of five seasons and ten months. But the Mantras used in the Pravargya ceremony are not so explicit as one might expect such kind of evidence to be. Therefore, instead of attempting to give more evidence of the same kind,—and there are many such facts in the Vedic sacri- ficial literature,—I proceed to give the direct statements about the duration of the annual Sattras from the well-known Vedic works. These statements have nothing of the legendary cha- racter about them, and are, therefore, absolutely certain and reliable. It has been stated before that the institution of sacrifice is an old one, and found amongst both the Asia- tic and the European branches of the Aryan-race. It was, in fact, the main ritual of the religion of these people, and naturally enough every detail concerning the sacrifices was

• Ait. Brâh. VI, 18—तस्य पराचोऽतिपाताद्विभ्यतस्तं परजैः स्वर्गैर्लोकैः परस्तात्प्रत्यस्तम्भ्नुवन् । Also cf. Tâṇḍya Brâh, IV, 5, 9-11.

THE COWS' WALK. 193 closely watched, or accurately determined by the priests, who had the charge of these ceremonies. It is true that in giving reasons for the prevalence of a particular practice, these priests some- times indulged in speculation; but the details of the sacrifice were facts that were settled in strict accordance with custom and tradition, whatever explanations might be given in regard to their origin. But sometimes the facts were found to be so stubborn as to defy any explanation, and the priests had to content themselves with barely recording the practice, and adding that "such is the practice from times immemorial." It is with such evidence that we have now to deal in investigating the duration of the annual Sattras in ancient times. There are many annual Sattras like Âdityânâm-ayanam, Aṅgirasâm-ayanam, Gavâm-ayanam, &c. mentioned in the Brâh- maṇas and the Shrauta Sûtras; and, as observed by Dr. Haug, they seem to have been originally established in imitation of the sun's yearly course. They are the oldest of the Vedic sacrifices, and their duration and other details have been all very minutely and carefully noted down in the sacrificial works. All these annual Sattras are not, however, essentially different from each other, being so many different varieties or modifications, according to circumstances, of a common model or type, and the Gavâm- ayanam is said to be this type, (vide, com. on Âshv. S. S. 11, 7, 1). Thus in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (IV, 17) we are told that "They hold the Gavâm-ayanam, that is, the sacrificial session called 'the Cows' walk.' The cows are the Âdityas (gods of the months). By holding the session called the Cows' walk they also hold the Âdi- tyânâm-ayanam (the walk of the Âdityas)."* If we, therefore, ascer- tain the duration of the Gavâm-ayanam, the same rule would apply to all other annual Sattras, and we need not examine the latter separately. This Gavâm-ayanam, or the Cows' walk, is fully

• See Dr. Haug's Ait. Brâh. Vol. II, p. 287. The original is as follows,—गवामयनेन यंति। गावो वा आदित्या आदित्यानामेव तदयनेन यंति.

194 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. described in three places. Once in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa and twice in the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ. We begin with the Aitareya Brahmaṇa (IV, 17), which describes the origin and duration of the Sattra as follows:— "The cows, being desirous of obtaining hoofs and horns, held (once) a sacrificial session. In the tenth month (of their sacrifice) they obtained hoofs and horns. They said, 'We have obtained fulfilment of that wish for which we underwent the initiation into the sacrificial rites. Let us rise (the sacrifice being finished).' Those, that arose, are these, who have horns. Of those, who, however, sat (continued the session) saying, 'Let us finish the year,' the horns went off on account of their distrust. It is they, who are hornless (tûparâḥ). They (continu- ing their sacrificial session) produced vigour (ûrjam). Thence- after (having been sacrificing for twelve months and) having secured all the seasons, they rose (again) at the end. For they had produced the vigour (to reproduce horns, hoofs, &c. when decaying). Thus the cows made themselves beloved by all (the whole world), and are beautified (decorated) by all."* Here it is distinctly mentioned that the cows first obtained the fulfilment of their desire in ten months, and a number of them left off sacrificing further. Those, that remained and sacrificed for two months more, are called 'distrust- ful,' and they had to suffer for their distrust by forfeiting the horns they had obtained. It is, therefore, clear, that this yearly Sattra, which in the Saṁhitâs and Brâhmaṇas is a Sattra of twelve months in imitation of the sun's yearly

• See Dr. Haug's Ait. Brâh. Trans. Vol. II, p. 287. The passage is as follows,—गावो वै सत्रमासत । शफ़ाँ शृंगाणि सिषासत्यस्तासां दशमे मासि शफ़ाः शृंगाण्यजायंत । ता अब्रुवन् यस्मै कामायादीक्षामह्यापाम तमुत्ति- ष्ठामेति । ता या उदतिष्ठंस्ता एता शृंगिण्योऽथ याः समापयिष्यामः संवत्सरमि- त्यासत तासामश्रद्धया शृंगाणि प्रावर्तंत । ता एतास्तूपरा ऊर्जं त्वसुन्वंस्तस्मादु ताः सर्वानृतून्प्राप्न्वोत्तरावुत्तिष्ठंस्तूर्जं ह्यसुन्वन् सर्वस्य वै गावः प्रेमाणं सर्वस्य चारुतां गताः । सर्वस्य प्रेमाणं सर्वस्य चारुतां गच्छति य एवं वेद ।

THE COWS' WALK. 195 course, was once completed in ten months. Why should it be so? Why was a Sattra, which is annual in its very nature and which now lasts for twelve months, once completed in ten months? How did the sacrificers obtain all the religious me- rit of a twelve months' sacrifice by sacrificing for ten months only? These are very important questions; but the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa neither raises them, nor gives us any clue to their solution. If we, however, go back to the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ, the oldest and most authoritative work on the sacrificial cere- monies, we find the questions distinctly raised. The Saṁhitâ expressly states that the Gavâm-ayanam can be completed in ten or twelve months, according to the choice of the sacrificer; but it plainly acknowledges its inability to assign any reason how a Sattra of twelve months could be completed in ten, ex- cept the fact that "it is an old practice sanctioned by imme- morial usage." These passages are very important for our purpose, and I give below a close translation of each. The first occurs in the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ (VII, 5, 1, 1-2)*, and may be rendered as follows :— "The cows held this sacrificial session, desiring that 'be- ing hornless let horns grow unto us.' Their session lasted (for) ten months. Then when the horns grew (up), they rose saying, 'We have gained.' But those, whose (horns) were not grown, they rose after completing the year, saying 'We have gained.' Those, that had their horns grown, and those that had not, both rose saying 'We have gained.' Cows' session is thus the year (year session). Those, who know this, reach the year and prosper verily. Therefore, the hornless (cow) moves

• Taitt. Saṁ. VII, 5, 1, 1–2,—गावो वा एतत् सत्रमासताशृंगाः सतीः शृंगाणि नो जायंता इति कामेन । तासां दश मासा निषणा आसन्नथ शृं गाण्य- जायंत ता उदतिष्ठन्नरात्स्मेत्यथ यासां नाजायंत ताः संवत्सरमाप्त्वाोदतिष्ठन्नरा- त्स्मेति । यासां चाजायंत यासां च न ता उभयीरुदतिष्ठन्नरात्स्मेति । गोसत्रं वै संवत्सरो य एवं विद्वाँसः संवत्सरमुपयंत्यृध्नुवंत्येव तस्मात्तूपरा वार्षिकी मासौ षंर्त्वा चरति सत्राभिजितं ह्यस्यै तस्मात्संवत्सरसदो यत्किंच गृहे क्रियते तदाप्त- मवरुद्धमभिजितं क्रियते ।

196 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. (grazes) pleased during the two rainy months. This is what the Sattra has achieved for her. Therefore, whatever is done in the house of one performing the yearly Sattra is successful- ly, timely and properly done." This account slightly differs from that given in the Aita- reya Brâhmaṇa. In the Saṁhitâ the cows, whose session last- ed for twelve months, are said to be still hornless; but instead of getting vigour (ûrjam), they are said to have obtained as a reward for their additional sitting, the pleasure of comfortable grazing in the two rainy months, during which, as the com- mentator observes, the horned cows find their horns an impe- diment to graze freely in the field, where new grass has grown up. But the statement regarding the duration of the Sattra, viz., that it lasted for ten or twelve months, is the same both in the Saṁhitâ and in the Brâhmaṇa. The Saṁhitâ again takes up the question in the next Anuvâka (VII, 5, 2, 1-2)*, and further describes the cows' session as follows:— "The cows held this sacrificial session, being hornless (and) desiring to obtain horns. Their session lasted (for) ten months; then when the horns grew (up), they said, 'We have gained, let us rise, we have obtained the desire for which we sat (commenced the session).' Half, or as many, of them as said, 'We shall certainly sit for the two twelfth (two last) months, and rise after completing the year,' (some) of them had horns in the twelfth month by trust, (while) by distrust those that (are seen) hornless (remained so). Both, that is, those who got horns, and those who obtained vigour (ûrjam), thus * Taitt. Sam. VII, 5, 2, 1-2.—गावो वा एतत् सत्रमासताशृं˙गाः सतीः शृंगाणि सिषासंतीस्तासां दश मासा निषण्णा आसन्नथ शृंगाण्यजायंत ता अ- ब्रुवन्नरात्स्मोत्तिष्ठामान्न तं काममरुत्स्महि येन कामेन न्यषदामेति तासामु त्वा अ- ब्रुवन्नर्धा वा यावतीर्वाऽस्सामहा एवेमौ द्वादशौ मासौ संवत्सरं संपाद्योत्तिष्ठामेति तासां द्वादशे मासि शृंगाणि प्रावर्तन्त श्रद्धया वाऽश्रद्धया वा ता इमा वास्तूपरा उभय्यो वाव ता आर्ध्नुवन् याश्च शृंगान्यसुन्वन् • याश्चोर्जमवावृंधतर्ध्नोति दशसु मासूत्तिष्ठन्नृध्नोति द्वादशसु य एवं वेद पदेन खलु वा एते यंति विन्दति खलु वै पदेन यन्तङ्गा एतदृद्धमयनं तस्मादेतत्तद्रोत्सनि ।

THE COWS' WALK. 197 attained their object. One, who knows this, prospers, whether rising (from the sacrifice) in the tenth month or in the twelfth. They indeed go by the path (padena); he going by the path indeed attains (the end). This is that successful ayanam (session). Therefore, it is go-sani (beneficial to the cows).” This passage, in its first part, repeats the story given in the previous Anuvâka of the Saṁhitâ and in the Aitareya Brâh- maṇa with slight variations. But the latter part contains two important statements : firstly that whether we complete the sacrifice within ten months or twelve months, the religious me- rit or fruit obtained is the same in either case, for both are said to prosper equally ; and secondly, this is said to be the case because it is the ‘path,’ or as Sâyaṇa explains, “ an immemorial custom.” The Saṁhitâ is, in fact, silent as to the reason why an annual Sattra, which ought to, and as a matter of fact does, now last for twelve months, could be completed in ten months; and this reticence is very remarkable, considering how the Saṁhitâ sometimes indulges in speculations about the origin of sacrificial rites. Any how we have two facts clearly established, (1) that at the time of the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ the Gavâm-aya- nam, the type of all annual Sattras, could be completed in ten months ; and (2) that no reason was known at the time, as to why a Sattra of twelve months could be thus finished in ten, except that it was ‘an immemorial custom.’ The Tâṇḍya Brâhmaṇa, IV, 1, has a similar discussion about Gavâm-aya- nam, and clearly recognises its two-fold character so far as its duration is concerned. Sâyaṇa and Bhaṭṭ-Bhâskara, in their commentaries on the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ, cannot, there- fore, be said to have invented any new theory of their own as regards the double duration of this annual Sattra. We shall discuss later on what is denoted by “ cows ” in the above passages. At present we are concerned with the duration of the Sattra ; and if we compare the above matter-of-fact state- ments in the Saṁhitâ about the double duration of the annual

198 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Sattra with the legend of the Dashagvas sacrificing for ten months, the conclusion, that in ancient times the ancestors of the Vedic Aryas completed their annual sacrificial session in ten months, becomes irresistible. This duration of the Sattra must have been changed and all such Sattras made to last for twelve months, when the Vedic people came to live in regions where such an annual session was impossible. But conserva- tism in such matters is so strong that the old practice must have outlived the change in the calendar, and it had to be re- cognised as an alternative period of duration for this Sattra in the Samhitâs. The Taittirîya Samhitâ has thus to record the alternative period, stating that it is an ancient practice, and I think it settles the question, so far as the duration of these Sattras in ancient times is concerned. Whatever reasons we may assign for it, it is beyond all doubt that the oldest annual Sattras lasted only for ten months. But the Taittirîya Samhitâ is not alone in being thus unable to assign any reason for this relic of the ancient calen- dar, or the duration of the annual Sattra. We still designate the twelfth month of the European solar year as December, which word etymologically denotes the tenth month, (Latin decem, Sans. dashan, ten; and ber Sans. vâra, time or period), and we all know that Numa added two months to the ancient Roman year and made it of twelve months. Plutarch, in his life of Numa, records another version of the story, viz., that Numa, according to some, did not add the two months, but sim- ply transferred them from the end to the beginning of the year. But the names of the months clearly show that this could not have been the case, for the enumeration of the months by words indicating their order, as the fifth or Quintilis (old name for July), the sixth or Sixtilis, (old name for August), the seventh or September and so on the rest in their order, cannot, after it is once begun, be regarded to have abruptly stopped at December, allowing only the last two months to be differently named.

THE COWS' WALK. 199 Plutarch has, therefore, rightly observed that "we have a proof in the name of the last (month) that the Roman year contained, at first, ten months only, and not twelve."* But if there was any doubt on the point, it is now removed by the analogy of the Gavâm-ayanam and the legends of the Dashagvas and Dîrghata- mas. Macrobius (Saturnal. Lib. I. Chap. 12) confirms the story of Numa's adding, and not simply transposing, two months to the ancient year of ten months. What the Avesta has to say on this subject we shall see later on where traditions about the ancient year amongst the other Aryan races will also be consi- dered. Suffice it to say for the present that, according to tra- dition, the ancient Roman year consisted only of ten months, and like the duration of the Gavâm-ayanam, it was subsequently changed into a year of twelve months ; and yet, so far as I know, no reason has yet been discovered, why the Roman year in ancient times was considered to be shorter by two months. On the contrary, the tendency is either to explain away the tradi- tion some how as inconvenient, or to ignore it altogether as incredible. But so long as the word December is before us, and we know how it is derived, the tradition cannot be so lightly set side. The Encyclopædia Britanica (s. v. calendar) records the ancient tradition that the oldest Roman year of Romu- lus was of ten months of 304 days, and observes "it is not known how the remaining days were disposed of." If, with all the resour- ces of modern science at our command, we have not yet been able to ascertain why the oldest Roman year was of ten months only, and how the remaining days were disposed of, we need not be surprised if the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ refrained from spe- culating on the point and contented itself with stating that such was the 'path' or the old custom or practice handed down from generation to generation from times immemorial.

• See Plutarch's Lives, translated into English by the Rev. John and William Langhorne (Ward, Lock & Co.), p. 54, f.

200 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. The Arctic theory, however, now throws quite a new light on these ancient traditions, Vedic as well as Roman; and if we take the Gavâm-ayanam of ten months and the old Roman year of ten months as relics of the period when the ancestors of both these races lived together within the circum-polar regions, there is no difficulty of explaining how the remaining days were dispo- sed of. It was the period of the long night,—a time when Indra fought with Vala, to regain the cows imprisoned by the latter and Hercules killed the giant Cacus, a three-headed fire-vomiting monster, who had carried off Hercules' cows and hid them in a cave, dragging them backwards in order that the foot-marks might not be traced. When the Aryan people migrated southwards from this ancient home they had to change this calendar to suit their new home by adding two more months to the old year. But the traces of the old calendar could not be completely wiped off, and we have still sufficient evidence, traditional or sacrifi- cial, to warrant us in holding that a year of ten months followed by a night of two months was known in the Indo-Germanic period—a conclusion, which is further confirmed by Teutonic myths and legends, as explained by Prof. Rhys, whose views will be found summarised in a subsequent chapter. The Taittirîya Saṁhitâ and the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa speak of the Gavâm-ayanam as being really held by the cows. Was it really a session of these animals ? Or was it something else ? The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa, we have seen, throws out a sugges- tion that 'the cows are the Âdityas,' that is, the month-gods, and the Cows' session is really the session of the monthly sun- gods.* Comparative mythology now fully bears out the truth of this remarkable suggestion put forward by the Brâhmaṇa. Cows, such as we meet them in the mythological legends, represent days and nights of the year, not only in the Vedic

• See Aitareya Brâh. IV, 17, quoted supra ; गवामयनेन यंति । गावो वा आदित्या आदित्यानामेव तदयनेन यंति ।

THE COWS' WALK. 201 but also in the Greek mythology ; and we can, therefore, now give a better account of the origin of this sacrificial session than that it was a session of bovine animals for the purpose of obtaining horns. Speaking of cows in the Aryan mythology, Prof. Max Muller in his Contributions to the Science of Mythology (Vol. II. p. 761) writes as follows :— "There were thus three kinds of cows, the real cows, the cows in the dark cloud (rain=milk), and the cows stepping forth from the dark stable of the night (the rays of the morning). These three are not always easy to distinguish in the Veda, nay, while we naturally try to distinguish between them, the poets- themselves seem to delight in mixing them up. In the passage quoted above (I, 32, 11), we saw how the captive waters were compared to cows that had been stolen by Paṇi (niruddhāḥ āpaḥ Paṇinā iva gāvaḥ), but what is once compared in the Veda is soon identified. As to the Dawn, she is not only compared to a cow, she is called the cow straight out. Thus when we read, R. V. I, 92, 1, 'These dawns have made a light on the east- ern half of the sky, they brighten their splendour, the bright cows approach, the mothers,' the cows, gāvaḥ, can only be the dawns themselves, the plural of dawn being constantly in the Veda used where we should use the singular. In R. V. I, 93, 4, we read that 'Agnîshomau deprived Paṇi of his cows and found light for many.' Here again the cows are the dawns kept by Paṇi in the dark stable or cave of the night, discovered by Saramâ and delivered every morning by the gods of light." "We read in R. V. I, 62, 3, that Bṛihaspati split the rock and found the cows." "Of Indra it is said, II, 19, 3, that he produced the sun and found the cows ; of Bṛihaspati, II, 24, 3, that he drove out the cows, that he split the cave by his word, that he hid the darkness, and lighted up the sky. What can be clearer ? The Maruts also, II, 34, 1, are said to uncover the cows, and Agni,

202 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. V, 14, 4, is praised for killing the fiends, for having overcome darkness by light, and having found the cows, water and the sun." "In all these passages we find no iva or na, which would indicate that the word cow was used metaphorically. The dawns or days as they proceed from the dark stable, or are rescued from evil spirits, are spoken of directly as the cows. If they are spoken of in the plural, we find the same in the case of the Dawn (ushas) who is often conceived as many, as in II, 28, 2, upâyane ushasâm gomatinâm, 'at the approach of the dawns with their cows.' From that it required but a small step to speak of the one Dawn as the mother of the cows, IV, 52, 2, mâtâ gavâm." "Kuhn thought that these cows should be understood as the red clouds of the morning. But clouds are not always present at sunrise, nor can it well be said that they are carried off and kept in prison during the night by the powers of darkness." "But What is important and settles the point is the fact that these cows or oxen of the dawn or of the rising sun occur in other mythologies also and are there clearly meant for days. They are numbered as 12 × 30, that is, the thirty days of the 12 lunar months. If Hêlios has 350 oxen and 350 sheep, that can only refer to the days and to the nights of the year, and would prove the knowledge of a year of 350 days before the Aryan separation." "Thus the cows in mythology are the days and nights, or dawns, that are imprisoned by Paṇi, and not real living cows with horns. Adopting this explanation and substituting these metaphorical cows for gavâḥ in the Gavâm-ayanam, it is not difficult to see that underneath the strange story of cows holding a sacrificial session for getting horns, there lies concealed the remarkable phenomenon, that, released from the clutches of Paṇi, these cows of days and nights walked on for ten months, the oldest duration of the session known as Cows'

THE COWS' WALK. 203 walk. In plain language this means, if it means anything, that the oldest Aryan year was one of ten months followed by the long night, during which the cows were again carried away by the powers of darkness. We have seen that the oldest Ro- man year was of ten months, and the Avesta, as will be shown later on, also speaks of ten months' summer prevailing in the Airyana Vaejo before the home was invaded by the evil spirit, who brought on ice and severe winter in that place. A year of ten months with a long night of two months may thus be taken to be known before the Aryan separation, and the refer- ences to it in the Vedic literature are neither isolated nor ima- ginary. Thye are the relics of ancient history, which have been faithfully preserved in the sacrificial literature of India, and if they were hitherto misunderstood it was because the true key required for their solution was as yet unknown. But as stated in the previous chapter, a year in the circum- polar region will always have a varying number of the months of sunshine according to latitude. Although, therefore, there is sufficient evidence to establish the existence of a year of ten months, we cannot hold that it was the only year known in ancient times. In fact we have seen that the legend of Aditi indicates the existence of the seven months of sunshine ; and a band of thirty continuous dawns supports the same conclusion. But it seems that a year of ten months of sunshine was more prevalent, or was selected as the mean of the different vary- ing years. The former view is rendered probable by the fact that of the Aṅgirases of various forms (virûpas) the Navag- vas and the Dashagvas are said to be the principal or the most important in the Ṛig-Veda (X, 62, 6). But whichever view we adopt, the existence of a year of seven, eight, nine, ten or eleven months of sunshine follows as a matter of course, if the ancient Aryan home was within the Arctic circle. Prof. Max Muller, in the passage quoted above, points out that the old Greek year probably consisted of 350 days, the 350 oxen of

204 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Hêlios representing the days, and 350 sheep representing the nights. He also notices that in German mythology 700 gold rings of Wieland, the smith, are spoken of, and comparing the number with 720 sons of Agni mentioned in I, 164, 11, he draws from it the conclusion that a year of 350 days is also represented in the German mythology. This year is shorter by ten days than the civil year of 360 days, or falls short of the full solar year by 15 days. It is, therefore, clear, that if a year of 350 days existed before the Aryan separation, it must have been followed by a continuous night of ten days ; while, where the year was of 300 days, the long night extended over 60 days of 24 hours each. We shall thus have different kinds of long nights; and it is necessary to see if we can collect evi- dence to indicate the longest duration of the night known be- fore the Aryan separation. Speaking of the cows or oxen of Hêlios, as stated in the passage quoted above, Prof. Max Mul- ler goes on to observe :- "The cows or oxen of Hêlios thus receive their back- ground from the Veda, but what is told of them by Homer is by no means clear. When it is said that the companions of Odysseus consumed the oxen of Hêlios, and that they thus forfeited their return home, we can hardly take this in the modern sense of consuming or wasting their days, thought it may be difficult to assign any other definite meaning to it. Equally puzzling is the fable alluded to in the Homeric hymn that Hermes stole the oxen of Apollon and killed two of them. The number of Apollon's oxen is given as fifty (others give the number as 100 cows, twelve oxen and one bull), which looks like the number of weeks in the lunar year, but why Hermes should be represented as carrying off the whole herd and then killing two, is difficult to guess, unless we refer it to the two additional months in a cycle of four years." In the light of the Arctic theory the puzzle here referred to is solved without any difficulty. The stealing away or the

THE COWS' WALK. 205 carrying off of the cows need not now be taken to mean simple wasting of the days in the modern sense of the word; nor need we attribute such stories to the "fancy of ancient bards and story tellers." The legend or the tradition of stealing, consuming, or carrying off the cows or oxen is but another form of stating that so many days were lost, being swallowed up in the long night that occurred at the end of the year and lasted, according to latitude, for varying periods of time. So long as every thing was to be explained on the theory of a daily struggle between light and darkness, these legends were unintelligible. But as soon as we adopt the Arctic theory the whole difficulty vanishes, and what was confused and puzzling before becomes at once plain and comprehensible. In the Vedic mythology cows are similarly said to be stolen by Vṛitra or Vala, but their number is nowhere given, unless we regard the story of Ṛijrâshva (the Red-horse) slaughtering 100 or 101 sheep and giving them to a she-wolf to devour (I,116,16; 117, 18), as a modification of the story of stealing the cows. The Vedic sacrificial literature does, however, preserve for us an important relic, besides the one above noted, of the older calendar and especially the long night. But in this case the relic is so deeply buried under the weight of later explanations, adaptations and emendations, that we must here examine at some length the history of the Soma sacrifices in order to discover the original meaning of the rites which are included under that general name. That the Soma sacrifice is an ancient institution is amply proved by parallel rites in the Parsi scriptures; and whatever doubt we may have regarding the knowledge of Soma in the Indo-European period, as the word is not found in the European languages, the system of sacrifices can be clearly traced back to the primeval age. Of this sacrificial system, the Soma sacrifice may, at any rate, be safely taken as the oldest representative, since it forms the main feature of the ritual of the Ṛig-Veda, and a whole

206 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Maṇḍala of 114 hymns in the Ṛig-Veda is dedicated to the praise of Soma. A careful analysis of the Soma sacrifice may, therefore, be expected to disclose, at least partially, the nature of the oldest sacrificial system of the Aryan race; and we, therefore, proceed to examine the same. The chief characteristic of the Soma sacrifice, as distin- guished from other sacrifices, is, as the name indicates, the ex- traction of the Soma juice and the offering thereof to gods be- fore drinking it. There are three libations of Soma in a day, one in the morning, one at mid-day, and the last in the evening, and all these are accompanied by the chanting of hymns during the sacrifice. These Soma sacrifices, if classed according to their duration, fall under three heads; (1) those that are per- formed in a single day, called Ekâhas, (2) those that are per- formed in more than one and less than thirteen days, called Ahînas, and (3) those that take thirteen or more than 13 days and may last even for one thousand years, called Sattras. Under the first head we have the Agniṣhṭoma, fully described in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (III, 39-44), as the key or the type of all the sacrifices that fall under this class. There are six modifica- tions of Agniṣhṭoma, viz., Ati-agniṣhṭoma, Ukthya, Shoḍashî, Vâjapeya, Atirâtra and Aptoryâma, which together with Ag- niṣhṭoma, form the seven parts, kinds or modifications of the Jyotiṣhṭoma sacrifice, (Ashv. S. S. VI, 11, 1). The modification chiefly consists in the number of hymns to be recited at the libations, or the manner of recitation, or the number of the Grahas or Soma-cups used on the occasion. But with these we are not at present concerned. Of the second class of Soma sacri- fices, the Dvâdashâha or twelve days' sacrifice is celebrated both as Ahîna and Sattra and is considered to be very important. It is made up of three tryahas (or three days' performances, called respectively Jyotis, Go, and Ayus), the tenth day and the two Atirâtras (Ait. Br. IV, 23-4). The nine days' performance

THE COWS' WALK. 207 (three tryahas) is called the Nava-rātra. Side by side with this, there are, under this head, a number of Soma sacrifices extend- ing over two nights, three nights, four nights, upto twelve nights, called dvi-rātra, tri-rātra and so on (Tait. Saṁ. VII; 1, 4,—VII, 3, 2 ; Ashv. Shr. Sut. X and XI ; Tāṇ. Brā. 20, 11,—24, 19). In the third class we have the annual Sattras and of these the Gavām- ayanam is the type. Some Sattras which come under this class are described as extending over 1,000 years, and a discussion is found in sacrificial works as to whether the phrase one thousand years signifies 1,000 real years, or whether it stands for 1,000 days. But we may pass it over as unnecessary for our purpose. The annual Sattras are the only important Sattras of this class, and to understand their nature we must see what a shaḷaha means. The word literally denotes a group of six days (shaṭ + ahan) and is used to denote six days' performance in the sacrificial litera- ture. It is employed as a unit to measure a month in the same way as we now use a week, a month being made up of five shaḷahas. The shaḷaha, in its turn, consists of the daily sacrifices called, Jyotis, Go, Āyus, and the same three taken in the reverse order as Āyus, Go and Jyotis. Every shaḷaha, therefore, begins and ends with a Jyotiṣhṭoma (Ait. Br. IV, 15). The sha- ḷaha is further distinguished into Abhiplava and Pṛishṭhya, ac- cording to the arrangement of the stomas or songs sung at the Soma libations. An annual Sattra is, in the main, made up of a number of shaḷahas joined with certain special rites at the be- ginning, the middle and the close of the Sattra. The central day of the Sattra is called Viṣhuvān, and stands by itself, dividing the Sattra into two equal halves like the wings of a house (Tait. Br. I, 2, 3, 1) ; and the rites in the latter half of the session or after the Viṣhuvān day are performed in an order which is the reverse of that followed in performing the ceremonies in the first half of the sacrifice. The model annual Sattra (the Gavām- ayanam) thus consists of the following parts :—

208 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. Parts. Days.

1. The introductory Atirâtra............................................ 1
2. The Chaturviṁsha day, otherwise called the Ârambha- nîya (Ait. Br. IV. 12), or the Prâyaṇîya (Tâṇḍ. Br. IV, 2), the real beginning of the Sattra............... 1
3. Four Abhiplava, followed by one Pṛiṣhṭhya shaḷaha each month; continued in this way for five months... 150
4. Three Abhiplava and one Pṛiṣhṭhya shaḷaha............... 24
5. The Abhijit day...................................................... 1
6. The Three Svara-Sâman days.................................... 3
7. The Viṣhuvân or the Central day, which stands by itself, i.e., not counted in the total of the Sattra days.
8. The three Svara-Sâman days.................................... 3
9. The Vishvajit day................................................... 1
10. One Pṛiṣhṭhya and three Abhiplava shaḷahas......... 24
11. One Pṛiṣhṭhya and four Abhiplava shaḷahas each month; continued in this way for four months.................. 120
12. Three Abhiplava shaḷahas, one Go-ṣhṭoma, one Âyu- ṣhṭoma, and one Dasharâtra (the ten days of Dvâda- shâha), making up one month.............................. 30
13. The Mahâvrata day, corresponding to the Chaturviṁsha day at the beginning............................................ 1
14. The concluding Atirâtra............................................ 1 Total days.........360. It will be seen from the above scheme that there are really a few sacrificial rites which are absolutely fixed and unchange- able in the yearly Sattra. The two Atirâtras, the introductory and the concluding, the Chaturviṁsha and the Mahâvrata day, the Abhijit and the Vishvajit, the three Svara-Sâman days on either side of Viṣhuvân, the Viṣhuvân itself, and the ten days of Dvâdashâha, making up 22 days in all, ex- clusive of Viṣhuvân, are the only parts that have any special- ity about them. The rest of the days are all made up by Abhiplava and Pṛiṣhṭhya shaḷahas, which, therefore, consti- tute what may. be called the elastic or the variable part of the yearly Sattra. Thus if we want a Gavâm-ayanam of ten months, we have only to strike off five shaḷahas from the

THE COWS' WALK 209 parts marked 3 and 11 in the above scheme. The Âdityanâm- ayanam is another modification of the above scheme in which, amongst other changes, the shaḷahas are all Abhiplava, instead of being a combination of Abhiplava and Prishṭhya; while if all the shaḷahas are Prishṭhya, along with some other changes, it becomes the Aṅgirasâm-ayanam. All these modifications do not, however, touch the total number of 360 days. But there were sacrificers, who adopted the lunar year of 354 days, and, therefore, omitted 6 days from the above scheme; and their Sattra is called the Utsar- giṇâm-ayanam (Tait. Sam. VII, 5, 7, 1; Tâṇḍya Brâh. V, 10). In short, the object was to make the Sattra correspond with the year adopted, civil or lunar, as closely as possible. But these points are not relevant to our purpose. The Brâhmaṇas and the Shrauta Sûtras give further details about the various rites to be performed on the Viṣhuvân, the Abhijit and the Vishvajit or the Svara-sâman day. The Aitareya Âraṇyaka describes the Mahâvrata ceremony; while the Atirâtra and the Chaturviṁsha are described in the fourth book of the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa. The Chaturviṁsha is so called because the stoma to be chanted on that day is twenty-four-fold. It is the real beginning of the Sattra as the Mahâvrata is its end. The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (IV, 14) says, "The Hotṛi pours forth the seed. Thus he makes the seed (which is poured forth) by means of the Mahâvrata day produce off-spring. For seed if effused every year is productive." This explanation shows that like the Pravargya ceremony, the Mahâvrata was intended to preserve the seed of the sacrifice in order that it might ger- minate or grow at the proper time. It was a sort of link bet- ween the dying and the coming year, and appropriately con- cluded the annual Sattra. It will be further seen that every annual Sattra had an Ati-râtra at each of its ends, and that the Dvâdashâha, or rather the ten days thereof, formed an important concluding part of the Sattra. 24

210 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. The above is only a brief description, a mere outline of the scheme of the annual Sattras mentioned in sacrificial works, but it is sufficient for our purpose. We can see from it that a civil year of 360 days formed their basis, and the position of the Viṣhuvân was of great importance inasmuch as the ceremonies after it were performed in the reverse order. I have shown elsewhere what important inferences can be drawn from the position of the Viṣhuvân regarding the calendar in use at the time when the scheme was settled. But we have now to consider of times which preceded the settlement of this scheme, and for that purpose we must describe another set of Soma sacrifices included under the general class of Sattras. It has been stated above that side by side with the Dvâdashâha, there are Ahîna sacrifices of two nights, three nights, etc. upto twelve nights. But these sacri- fices do not stop with the twelve nights' performance. There are thirteen nights', fourteen nights', fifteen nights,' and so on upto one hundred nights' sacrifice called Trayodasha-râtra, Chaturdasha- râtra and so on upto Shata-râtra. But since the Ahîna has been defined to be a sacrifice extending over not more than twelve or less than thirteen days, all the night-sacrifices extend- ing over a period longer than twelve nights are included in the third class, viz., the Sattras. If we, however, dis- regard this artificial division, it will be found that along with the Ekâha, the Dvâdashâha and the annual Sattras, there is a series of, what are termed, the night-sacrifices or sattras extending over a period of time from two to one hundred nights, but not further. These night-sacrifices or Râtri-sattras are mentioned in the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ, the Brâhmaṇas and the Shrauta Sûtras in clear terms, and there is no ambiguity about their nature, number, or duration. The Taittirîya Saṁ- hitâ in describing them often uses the word Râtrîḥ (nights) in the plural, stating, that so and so was the first to institute or to perceive 'so many nights' meaning so many nights' sacrifice,

THE COWS' WALK. 211 (vimshatim râtrîh, VII. 3, 9, 1; dvâtrimshatam râtrîh, VII, 4, 4, 1). According to the principle of division noted above all night- sacrifices of less than thirteen nights' duration will be called Ahîna, while those extending over longer time upto one hundred nights will come under Sattras; but this is, as remarked above, evidently an artificial division, and one, who reads carefully the description of these sacrifices, cannot fail to be struck by the fact that we have here a series of night-sacrifices from two to a hundred nights, or if we include the Ati-râtra in this series, we have practically a set of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices, though, according to the principle of division adopted, some may fall under the head of Ahîna and some under that of Sattras. Now an important question in connection with these Sattras is why they alone should be designated 'night-sacri- fices,' (râtri-kratus), or 'night-sessions' (râtri-sattras)? and why their number should be one hundred? or, in other words, why there are no night-sattras of longer duration than one hundred nights? The Mîmâmsakas answer the first part of the question by asking us to believe that the word 'night' (râtrih) is really used to denote 'a day' in the denomination of these sacrifices (Shabara on Jaimini VIII, 1, 17). The word Dvi-râtra, according to this theory, means two days' sacrifice, and Shata-râtra, a hundred days' sacrifice. This explanation appears very good at the first sight, and as a matter of fact it has been accepted by all writers on the sacrificial ceremonies. In support of it, we may also cite the fact that as the moon was the measurer of time in ancient days, the night was then natu- rally more marked than the day, and instead of saying 'so many days' men often spoke of 'so many nights,' much in the same way as we now use the word 'fort-night.' This is no doubt good so far as it goes; but the question is why should there be no Soma sacrifices of a longer duration than one hundred nights? and why a gap, a serious gap, is left