वेदों की प्राचीनता एवं काल-निर्णय / ओरायन (लोकमान्य बाल गंगाधर तिलक - खगोलीय वैदिक शोध)

172 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. point at some length in this place. That the word yuga by itself means 'a period of time,' or that, at any rate, it is one of its meanings goes without saying. Even the Petersburg Lexicon assigns this meaning to yuga in the Atharva Veda VIII, 2, 21 ; but so far as the Ṛig-Veda is concerned yuga, according to it, must mean 'descent,' or 'generation,' or some- thing like it, but never 'a period of time.' This is especially the case with the phrase Mânuṣhâ yugâ, or Manuṣhyâ yugâni, which occurs several times in the Ṛig-Veda. Western scho- lars would everywhere translate it to mean 'generations of men,' while native scholars, like Sâyaṇa and Mahîdhara, take it to refer to 'mortal ages' in a majority of places. In some cases (I, 124, 2 ; I, 144, 4) Sayâṇa, however, suggests, as an alternative, that the phrase may be understood to mean 'con- junction' or 'couples (yuga) of men' : and this has probably given rise to the interpretation put upon the phrase by Western scholars. Etymologically the word yuga may mean 'conjunc- tion' or 'a couple,' denoting either (1) 'a couple of day and night,' or (2) 'a couple of months,' i.e. 'a season,' or (3) 'a couple of fortnights,' or 'the time of the conjunction of the moon and the sun,' i. e. 'a month.' Thus at the beginning of the Kali- Yuga the planets and the sun were, it is supposed, in conjunc- tion and hence it is said to be called a yuga. It is also possible that the word may mean 'a conjunction, or a couple, or even a generation of men,' Etymology, therefore, does not help us in determining which of these meanings should be assigned to the word yuga, or the phrase Mânuṣhâ yugâ in the Ṛig- Veda, and we must find out some other means for determining it. The prejudice we have referred to above, appears to be mainly due to the disinclination of the Western scholars to import the later Yuga theory into the Ṛig-Veda. But it seems to me that the caution has been carried too far, so far as almost to amount to a sort of prejudice.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 173 Turning to the hymns of the Ṛig-Veda, we find as remark- ed by Muir, the phrase yuge yuge used at least in half a dozen places (III, 26, 3; VI, 15, 8; X, 94, 12, &c.), and it is interpreted by Sâyaṇa to mean a period of time. In III, 33, 8, and X, 10, 10, we have uttara yugáni 'later ages,' and in X, 72, 1, we read uttare yuge 'in a later age'; whilst in the next two verses we have the phrases Devânâm pûrvye yuge and Devânâm prathame yuge clearly referring to the later and earlier ages of the gods. The word Devânâm is in the plural and yuga is in the singular, and it is not therefore possible to take the phrase to mean 'generations of gods.' The context again clearly shows that a reference to time is intended, for the hymn speaks of the creation and the birth of the gods in early primeval times. Now if we interpret Devânâm yugam to mean 'an age of gods,' why should manushyâ yugâni or mânushâ yugâ be not interpreted to mean 'human ages,' is more than I can understand. There are again express passages in the Ṛig-Veda where mânushâ yugâ cannot be taken to mean 'generations of men.' Thus in V, 52, 4, which is a hymn to Maruts, we read Vishve ye mânushâ yugâ pânti martyam rishaḥ. Here the verb is pânti (protect), the nominative vishve ye (all those), and the object is martyam (the mortal man), while rishaḥ (from injury), in the ablative, denotes the object against which the protection is sought. So far the sentence, therefore, means "All those who protect man from injury"; and now the question is, what does mânushâ yugâ mean? If we take it to mean "genera- tions of men" in the objective case it becomes superfluous, for martyam (man) is already the object of pânti (protect). It is, therefore, necessary to assign to mânushâ yugâ the only other meaning we know of, viz., 'human ages' and take the phrase as an accusative of time. Thus interpreted the whole sentence means "All those, who protect man from injury during human ages." No other construction is more natural

174 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. or reasonable than this; but still Prof. Max Muller translates the verse to mean "All those who protect the generations of men, who protect the mortal from injury,"* in spite of the fact that this is tautological and that there is no conjunctive par- ticle in the text (like cha) to join what according to him are the two objects of the verb 'protect.' Mr. Griffith seems to have perceived this difficulty, and has translated, "Who all, through ages of mankind, guard mortal man from injury." Another passage which is equally decisive on this point, is X, 140, 6. The verse† is addressed to Agni, and people are said to have put him in front to secure his blessings. It is as follows :— Ritâvânam mahisham vishva-darshatam agnim sumnâya, dadhire puro janâḥ Shrut-karṇam saprathas-tamam tvâ girâ daivyam mânushâ yugâ ॥ Here ṛitâvânam (righteous), mahisham (strong), vishva-dar- shatam (visible to all), agnim (Agni, fire), shrut-karṇam (attentive eared), saprathas-tamam (most widely-reaching), tvâ (thee) and daivyam (divine) are all in the accusative case governed by dadhire (placed), and describe the qualities of Agni. Janâḥ (people) is the nominative and dadhire (placed) is the only verb in the text. Sumnâya (for the welfare) denotes the purpose for which the people placed Agni in front (puro) ; and girâ (by praises) is the means by which the favour of Agni is to be secured. If we, therefore, leave out the various adjectives of Agni, the verse means, "The people have placed Agni (as described) in front for their welfare, with praises." The only expression that remains is mânushâ yugâ, and it can go in with other words in a natural way only as an accusative of time. The verse would then mean

• See S. B. E. Series, Vol. XXXII, p. 312. † Rig. X, 140, 6,—ऋतावानं महिषं विश्वदर्शतमग्निं सुम्नाय दधिरे पुरो जनाः। श्रुत्कर्णं सप्रथस्तमं त्वा गिरा दैव्यं मानुषा युगा ॥

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 175 "The people have placed Agni (as described) in front for their welfare, with praises, during human ages." But Griffith takes yugâ to mean 'generations,' and supplying a verb of his own, translates the last part of the verse thus: "Men's generations magnify (Agni) with praise-songs (girâ)." This shows what straits we are reduced to if we once make up our mind not to interpret mânushâ yugâ to mean 'a period of time'; for the word 'magnify' does not exist in the original. This verse also occurs in the Vâjasaneyî Saṁhitâ (XII, 111) and Mahîdhara there explains mânushâ yugâ to mean 'human ages' or 'periods of time' such as fortnights. We have, therefore, at least two passages, where mânushâ yugâ, must, according to the recognised rules of inter- pretation, be taken to mean 'periods of time,' and not 'genera- tions of men,' unless we are prepared to give up the natural con- struction of the sentence. There are no more passages in the Ṛig-Veda where mânushâ yugâ occurs in juxtapposition with words like janâḥ or martyân, so as to leave no option as regards the meaning to be assigned to yuga. But if the meaning of a phrase is once definitely determined even from a single passage, we can safely understand the phrase in the same sense in other passages, provided the meaning does not conflict there with the context. That is how the meaning of many a Vedic word has been determined by scholars like Yâska, and we are not ventur- ing on a new path in adopting the same process of reasoning in the present case. But if mânushâ yugâ means 'human ages' and not 'human generations,' we have still to determine the exact duration of these ages. In the Atharva-Veda VIII, 2, 21, which says, "We allot to thee, a hundred, ten thousand years, two, three or four yugas," the word yuga obviously stands for a period of time, not shorter than ten thousand years. But there are grounds to hold that in the early days of the Ṛig- Veda yuga must have denoted a shorter period of time,

176 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS.

or, at least, that was one of its meanings in early days. The Ṛig-Veda often speaks of 'the first' (prathamâ) dawn, or 'the first of the coming' (âyatînâm prathamâ) dawns, (Ṛig. I, 113, 8; 123, 2; VII, 76, 6; X, 35, 4); while 'the last' (avamâ) dawn is mentioned in VII, 71, 3, and the dawn is said to have 'the knowledge of the first day' in I, 123, 9. Now, independently of what I have said before about the Vedic dawns, the ordinal numeral 'first' as- applied to the dawn is intelligible only if we suppose it to refer to the first dawn of the year, or the dawn on the first day of the year, somewhat like the phrase 'first night' (prathamâ râtriḥ) used in the Brâhmaṇas (see Orion, p. 67). The 'first' (prathamâ) and the 'last' (avamâ) dawn must, therefore, be- taken to signify the beginning and the end of the year in those days; and in the light of what has been said about the nature of the Vedic dawns in the fifth chapter, we may safely conclude that the 'first' of the dawns was no other than the first of a set or group of dawns that appeared at the- close of the long night and commenced the year. Now this 'first dawn' is described as "wearing out human ages" (praminatî manushyâ yugâni) in I, 124, 2, and I, 92, 11; while in I, 115, 2, we are told that "the pious or godly men extend the yugas" on the appearance of the dawn (yatra naro devayanto yugâni vitanvate). European scholars inter- pret yuga in the above passages to mean 'generations of men.' But apart from the fact that the phrase mânusha yugâ must be understood to mean 'human ages' in at least two passages discussed above, the context in I, 124, 2 and I, 92, 11 is obviously in favour of interpreting the word yuga, oc- curring therein, as equivalent to a period of time. The dawn is here described as commencing a new course of heaven- ly ordinances, or holy sacrifices (daivyani vratâni), and set- ting in motion the manushyâ yugâni, obviously implying that with the first dawn came the sacrifices, as well as the

cycle of time known as 'human ages,' or that 'the human ages' were reckoned from the first dawn. This association of mânushâ yugâ, or 'human ages,' with the 'first dawn' at once enables us to definitely determine the length or duration of 'human ages'; for if these ages (yugas) commenced with ths first dawn of the year, they must have ended on the last (avamâ) dawn of the year. In other words mânushâ yugâ collectively denoted the whole period of time between the first and the last dawn of the year, while a single yuga denoted a shorter division of this period. Apart from the legend of Dîrghatamas, we have, therefore, sufficient evidence in the Ṛig-Veda to hold that the word yuga was used to denote a period of time, shorter than one year, and that the phrase mânushâ yugâ meant 'human ages,' or 'the period of time between the first and the last dawn of year,' and not 'hu- man generations.' The statement that "Dîrghatamas grew old in the tenth yuga" is now not only easy to understand, but it enables us to determine, still more definitely, the meaning of yuga in the days of the Ṛig-Veda. For, if yuga was a part of mânushâ yugâ, that is, of the period between the first and the last dawn of the year, and the legend of Dîrghatamas a solar legend, the statement that "Dîrghatamas grew old in the tenth yuga" can only mean that 'the sun grew old in the tenth month.' In other words, ten yugas were supposed to intervene between the first and the last dawn, or the two termini, of the year; and as ten days or ten fortnights would be too short, and ten seasons too long a period of time to lie between these limits, the word yuga in the phrase dashame yuge, must be interpreted to mean 'a month' and nothing else. In short, Dîrghatamas was the sun that grew old in the tenth month, and riding on the aerial waters was borne by them to their goal, that is, to the ocean (VII, 49, 2) below the horizon. The waters here referred to are, in fact, the same over which

178 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. the king Varuṇa is said to rule, or which flow by his commands, or for which he is said to have dug out a channel (VII, 49, 1-4 ; II, 28, 4 ; VII, 87, 1) and so cut out a path for Sûrya, and which being released by Indra from the grasp of Vṛitra, bring on the sun (I, 51, 4). Prof. Max Muller, in his Contributions to the Science of Mythology (Vol. II, pp. 583-598), has shown that most of the achievements of the Ashvins can be rationally explained by taking them as referring to the decaying sun. The legend of Dîrgha- tamas is thus only a mythical representation of the Arctic sun, who ascends above the 'bright ocean' (VII, 60, 4), becomes visible for mânushâ yugâ, or ten months, and then drops again into the ne- ther waters. What these waters are and how their nature has been long misunderstood will be fufther explained in a subsequent chapter, when we come to the discussion of Vedic myths. Suffice it to say for the present that the legend of Dîrghatamas, interpreted as above, is in full accord with the legend of the Dashagvas, who are described as holding their sacrificial session only for ten months. I have discussed here the meaning of yuga and mânushâ yugâ at some length, because the phrases have been much misunderstood, in spite of clear passages shewing that 'a period of time' was intended to be denoted by them. These passages (V, 52, 4 ; X, 140, 6) establish the fact that mânushâ yugâ denoted 'human ages,' and the association of these ages with the 'first dawn' (I, 124, 2 ; I, 115, 2) further shews that the length of a yuga was regarded to be shorter than a year. The mention of the tenth yuga finally settles the meaning of yuga as 'one month.' That is how I have arrived at the meaning of these phrases, and I am glad to find that I have been anticipated in my conclusions by Prof. Rangâchârya, of Madras, on different grounds. In his es- say on the yugas,* he discusses the root meaning of yuga, and,

• The Yugas, or a Question of Hindu Chronology and History, p. 19.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 179 taking it to denote 'a conjunction,' observes as follows, "The phases of the moon being so readily observable, it is pro- bable that, as suggested by Professor Weber, the idea of a period of time known as a yuga and depending upon a conjunc- tion of certain heavenly bodies, was originally derived from a knowledge of these phases. The Professor (Weber) further strengthens his supposition by referring to a passage cited in the Shaḍviṁsha Brâhmaṇa (IV, 6)* wherein the four yugas are still designated by their more ancient names, and are con- nected with the four lunar phases to which they evidently owe their origin." Mr. Rangâchârya then refers to darsha, the ancient name for the conjunction of the sun and moon, and con- cludes, "There is also old mythological or other evidence which leads us to conclude that our forefathers observed many other kinds of interesting celestial conjunctions; and in all pro- bability the earliest conception of a yuga meant the period from new moon to new moon," that is, one lunar month. The passage stating that it was the first dawn that set the cycle of mânushâ yuga in motion is already quoted above; and if we compare this statement with Ṛig. X, 138, 6, where Indra after killing Vṛitra and producing the dawn and the sun, is said "to have set the ordering of the months in the sky," it will be further evident that the cycle of time which began with the first dawn was a cycle of months. We may, therefore, safely conclude that mânushâ yugâ represented, in early days, a cycle of months during which the sun was above the horizon, or rather that period of sunshine and action when the ances- tors of the Aryan race held their sacrificial sessions or performed other religious and social ceremonies. There are many other passages in the Ṛig-Veda which support the same view. But mânushâ yugâ being everywhere

• पुष्ये (कलौ) चानुमतिर्ज्ञेया सिनीवालीति द्वापरे। शार्वायां (त्रेतायां) तु भवेद्राका कृतपर्वे कुहुर्भवेत् ॥

180 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. interpreted by Western scholars to mean 'human generations or tribes,' the real meaning of these passages has become obscure and unintelligible. Thus in VIII, 46, 12, we have "All (sacrificers), with ladles lifted, invoke that mighty Indra for mānuṣhā yugā"; and the meaning evidently is that Soma libations were offered to Indra during the period of human ages. But taking mānuṣhā yugā to denote 'human tribes,' Griffith translates "All races of mankind invoke &c.," a ren- dering, which, though intelligible, does not convey the spirit of the original. Similarly, Agni is said to shine during 'human ages' in VII, 9, 4. But there too the meaning 'human tribes' is unnecessarily foisted upon the phrase. The most striking illustration of the impropriety of interpreting yuga to mean 'a generation' is, however, furnished by Ṛig. II, 2, 2. Here Agni is said to shine for mānuṣhā yugā and kṣhapāḥ. Now kṣhapāḥ means 'nights' and the most natural interpre- tation would be to take mānuṣhā yugā and kṣhapāḥ as allied ex- pressions denoting a period of time. The verse will then mean:— "O Agni! thou shinest during human ages and nights." It is necessary to mention 'nights,' because though mānuṣhā yugā is a period of sunshine, including a long day and a succession of ordinary days and nights, yet the long or the continuous night which followed mānuṣhā yugā could not have been in- cluded in the latter phrase. Therefore, when the whole period of the solar year was intended, a compound expression like "mānuṣhā yugā and the continuous nights" was necessary, and that is the meaning of the phrase in II, 2, 2. But Prof. Oldenberg, * following Max Muller, translates as follows, "O Agni! thou shinest on human tribes, on continuous nights." Here, in the first place, it is difficult to understand what 'shining on human tribes' means; and secondly if kṣhapāḥ means continuous

• See S. B. E. Series Vol. XLVI, pp. 193, 195.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 181 nights', it could mean nothing except 'the long continuous night,' and if so, why not take mânushâ yugâ to represent the period of the solar year, which remains after the long night is excluded from it ? As observed by me before, Prof. Max Muller has correctly translated kṣhapaḥ by 'continuous nights,' but has missed the true meaning of the expression mânushâ yugâ in this place. A similar mistake has been committed with respect to IV, 16, 19, where the expression is kṣhapaḥ madema śaradas cha pûrvîḥ. Here, in spite of the accent, Max Muller takes kṣhapaḥ as accusative and so does Sâyaṇa. But Sâyaṇa correctly inter- prets the expression as 'May we rejoice for many autumns (seasons) and nights.' 'Seasons and nights' is a compound phrase, and the particle cha becomes unmeaning if we split it up and take nights (kṣhapaḥ) with one verb, and seasons (śaradaḥ) with another. Of course so long as the Arctic theory was unknown the phrase 'seasons and nights' or 'mânushâ yugâ and nights' was unintelligible, inasmuch as nights were included in the seasons or the yugas. But Prof. Max Muller has himself suggested the solution of the difficulty by interpreting kṣhapaḥ as 'continuous nights' in II. 2, 2; and adopting this rendering, we can, with greater propriety, take seasons and nights together, as indicated by the particle cha, and understand the expression to mean a complete solar year including the long night. The addition of kṣhapaḥ to mânushâ yugâ, therefore, further supports the conclusion that the phrase indicated a period of sunshine as stated above. There are many other passages in translating which unnecessary confusion or obscurity has been caused by taking mânushâ yugâ to mean human tribes; but a discussion of these is not relevant to the subject in hand. An independent corroboration of the conclusion we have drawn from the legends of the Dashagvas and Dirghatamas

182 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. is furnished by the number of seasons mentioned in certain Vedic texts. A period of sunshine of ten months followed by a long night of two months can well be described as five seasons of two months each, followed by the sinking of the sun into the waters below the horizon; and as a matter of fact we find the year so described in I, 164, 12, a verse, which occurs also in the Atharva Veda (IX, 9, 12,) with a slight variation and in the Prashnopaniṣhad I, 11. It may be literally translated as follows:—"The five-footed (pañcha-pâdam) Father of twelve forms, they say, is full of watery vapours (purîshiṇam) in the farther half (pare ardhe) of the heaven. These others again say (that) He the far-seeing (vichakshaṇam) is placed on the six- spoked (shaḍ are) and seven-wheeled (car), in the nearer (upare, scil. ardhe) half of the heaven."* The adjective 'far-seeing' is made to qualify 'seven-wheeled' instead of 'He' in the Atharva Veda, vichakshaṇe being in the locative case; while Shaṅkarâchârya in his commentary on the Prashnopaniṣhpad splits upare into two words u and pare, taking u as an expletive. But these readings do not materially alter the meaning of the verse. The context everywhere clearly indicates that the year-god of twelve months (âkṛiti, X, 85, 5) is here described. The previous verse in the hymn (Ṛig. I, 164) mentions "The twelve-spoked wheel, in which 720 sons of Agni are established," a clear reference to a year of twelve months with 720 days and nights. There is, therefore,

• Ṛig. I., 164, 12, — पंचपादं पितरं द्वादशाकृतिं दिव आहुः परे अर्धे पुरीषिणम्। अथेमे अन्य उपरे विचक्षणं सप्तचक्रे षळर आहुरर्पितम्॥ For विचक्षणम् A. V. (IX, 9 12,) reads विचक्षणे; while Shaṅkarâchârya in his gloss on Prashnopaniṣhad takes उ and परे as two different words. Shaṅkarâchârya's explanation of परे अर्धे is also noteworthy. He trans- lates it by तृतीयास्यां दिवि, 'in the third heaven,' the seat of the third step of Vishṇu, meaning that the five-footed year-god is then hidden in the remotest part of the heaven.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 183 no doubt that the passage contains the description of the year, and the two halves of the verse, which are introduced by the phrases 'they say' and 'others say,' give us two opinions about the nature of the year-god of twelve forms. Let us now see what these opinions are. Some say that the year-god is five- footed (pañcha-pâdam), that is, divided into five seasons; and the others say that he has a six-spoked car, or six seasons. It is clear from this that the number of seasons was held to be five by some and six by others in early days. Why should there be this difference of opinion? The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa I, 1, (and the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ I, 6, 2, 3) explains that the two seasons of Hemanta and Shishira together made a joint season, thereby reducing the number of seasons from six to five. But this explanation seems to be an afterthought, for in the Shata- patha Brâhmaṇa, XIII, 6, 1, 10, Varshâ and Sharad are com- pounded for this purpose instead of Hemanta and Shishira. This shews that in the days of the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ and the Brâh- maṇas it was not definitely known or settled which two seasons out of six should be compounded to reduce the number to five; but as five seasons were sometimes mentioned in the Vedas, some explanation was felt to be necessary to account for the smaller number, and such explanation was devised by taking together any two consecutive seasons out of six and regard- ing them as one joint season of four months. But the ex- planation is too vague to be true; and we cannot believe that the system of compounding any two seasons according to one's choice was ever followed in practice. We must, therefore, give up the explanation as unsatisfactory, and see if the verse from the Ṛig-Veda, quoted above, enables us to find out a better explanation of the fact that the seasons were once held to be five. Now the first half of this verse describes the five-footed father as full of watery vapours in the farther part of heaven, while the year of six-spoked car is said to

184 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. be far-seeing. In short, purīshiṇam (full of, or dwelling in, waters) in the first line appears to be a counterpart of vichakshaṇam (far-seeing) in the second line. This is made clear by the verses which follow. Thus the 13th verse in the hymn speaks of " the five-spoked wheel " as remaining entire and unbroken though ancient ; and the next or the 14th verse says that " the unwast- ing wheel with its felly revolves ; the ten draw (it) yoked over the expanse. The sun's eye goes covered with rajas (aerial vapour) ; all worlds are dependent on him."* Comparing this with the 11th verse first quoted, it may be easily seen that purīshiṇam (full of watery vapours) and rajasā āvṛitam (covered with rajas) are almost synonymous phrases, and the only in- ference we can draw from them is that the five-footed year- god or the sun went to dwell in watery vapours i. e., became invisible, or covered with darkness (rajas), for some time in the farther part of the heaven. The expression that " The ten, yoked, draw his carriage," (also cf. Ṛig. IX, 63, 9) further shows that the five seasons were not made by combining any two consecutive seasons out of six as explained in the Brâh- maṇas (for in that case the number of horses could not be called ten), but that a real year of five seasons or ten months was here intended. When the number of seasons became increased to six, the year-god ceased to be purīshin (full of waters), and became vichakshaṇam or far-see- ing. We have seen that the sun, as represented by Dîrgha- tamas, grew old in the tenth month, and riding on aerial waters went into the ocean. The same idea is expressed in the present verse which describes two different views about the nature of the year, one of five, and the other of six sea- sons, and contrasts their leading features with each other.

• Ṛig. I, 164, 13 & 14,—पञ्चारे चक्रे परिवर्तमाने तस्मिञ्छा तस्थुर्भुवनानि विश्वा । तस्य नाक्षस्तप्यते भूरिभारः सनादेव न शीर्यते सनाभिः ॥ सनेमि चक्र- मजरं वि वावृत उत्तानायां दश युक्ता वहन्ति । सूर्यस्य चक्षू रजसैत्यावृतं तस्मि- न्नार्पिता भुवनानि विश्वा ॥

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 185 Thus pare ardhe is contrasted with upare ardhe in the second line, pañcha-pādam (compare pañchāre in the next verse, i.e., Ṛig-Veda I, 164, 13) with ṣhaḍ-are, and purīshiṇam with vichaksh- nam. In short, the verse under consideration describes the year either (1) as five-footed, and lying in waters in the farther part of heaven, or (2) as mounted on a six-spoked car and far-seeing in the nearer part of the heaven. These two descriptions cannot evidently apply to seasons in one and the same place, and the artifice of combining two consecutive seasons cannot be accepted as a solution of the question. Five seasons and ten months, followed by the watery residence of the sun or dark nights, is what is precisely described in the first half of this passage (I, 164, 12), and, from what has been said hitherto, it will be easily seen that it is the Arctic year of ten months that is here described. The verse, and especially the contrast between purīshiṇam and vichakshaṇam, does not appear to have attracted the attention it deserves. But in the light of the Arctic theory the description is now as intelligible as any. The Vedic bards have here preserved for us the memory of a year of five seasons or ten months, although their year had long been changed into one of twelve months. The explanation given in the Brâhmaṇas are all so many post facto devices to account for the mention of five seasons in the Ṛig-Veda, and I do not think we are bound to accept them when the fact of five seasons can be better ac- counted for. I have remarked before that in searching for evidence of ancient traditions we must expect to find later traditions associated with them, and Ṛig. I, 164, 12, dis- cussed above, is a good illustration of this remark. The first line of the verse, though it speaks of five seasons, des- cribes the year as twelve-formed; while the second line, which deals with a year of six seasons or twelve months, speaks of it as 'seven-wheeled,' that is, made up of seven months or seven suns, or seven rays of the sun. This may

186 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. appear rather inconsistent at the first sight; but the history of words in any language will show that old expressions are preserved in the language long after they have ceased to denote the ideas primarily expressed by them. Thus we now use coins for exchange, yet the word ‘pecuniary,’ which is derived from pecus = cattle, is still retained in the language; and similarly, we still speak of the rising of the sun, though we now know that it is not the lumi- nary that rises, but the earth, by rotating round its axis, makes the sun visible to us. Very much in the same way and by the same process, expressions like saptâshva (seven- horsed) or sapta-chakra (seven-wheeled), as applied to the year or the sun, must have become recognised and esta- blished as current phrases in the language before the hymns assumed their present form, and the Vedic bards could not have discarded them even when they knew that they were not applicable to the state of things before them. On the contrary, as we find in the Brâhmaņas, every artifice, that ingenuity could suggest, was tried to make these old phrases harmonise with the state of things then in vogue, and from the religious or the sacrificial point of view it was quite necessary to do so. But when we have to examine the question from a historical stand-point, it is our duty to separate the relics of the older period from facts or in- cidents of the later period with which the former are some- times inevitably mixed up; and if we analyse the verse in question (I, 164, 12) in this way we shall clearly see in it the traces of a year of ten months and five seasons. The same principle is also applicable in other cases, as, for in- stance, when we find the Navagvas mentioned together with the seven vipras in VI, 22, 2. The bards, who gave us the present version of the hymns, knew of the older or primeval state of things only by traditions, and it is no wonder if these traditions are occasionally mixed up with later events.

MONTHS AND SEASONS. 187 On the contrary the preservation of so many traditions of the primeval home is itself a wonder, and it is this fact, which invests the oldest Veda with such peculiar importance from the religious as well as the historical point of view. To sum up: there are clear traditions preserved in the Ṛig-Veda, which show that the year once consisted of seven months or seven suns, as in the legend of Aditi's sons, or that there were ten months of the year as in the legend of the Dashagvas or Dîrghatamas; and these cannot be accounted for except on the Arctic theory. These ten months formed the sacrificial session of the primeval sacrificers of the Aryan race; and the period was denominated as mânuṣhâ yugâ, or human ages, an expression much misunderstood by Western scholars. The sun went below the horizon in the tenth of these yugas, and Indra fought with Vala in the period of darkness which followed, and, at the end of the year, again brought back the sun "dwelling in darkness" during the period. The whole year of twelve months was thus made up of "mânuṣhâ yugâ and continuous nights," and, in spite of the fact that the Vedic bards lived later on in places where the sun was above the horizon for twelve months, the expression "mânuṣhâ yugâ and kṣhapaḥ (nights)" is still found in the Ṛig-Veda. It is true that the evidence discussed in this chapter is mostly le- gendary; but that does not lessen its importance in any way, for it will be seen later on that some of these traditions are Indo-European in character. The tradition that the year was regarded by some to have been made up only of five seasons, or that only ten horses were yoked to the chariot of the sun, is again in full accord with the meaning of these legends; and it will be shown in the next chapter that in the Vedic litera- ture there are express statements about a sacrificial session of ten months, which are quite independent of these traditions, and which, therefore, independently prove and strengthen the conclusions deduced from the legends discussed in this chapter.

CHAPTER VIII. THE COWS' WALK. The Pravargya ceremony—Symbolises the revival of the yearly sacrifice—Milk representing seed heated in Gharma or Mahâvîra- —Mantras used on the occasion of pouring milk into it —The two creating the five, and the ten of Vivasvat—Indicate the death of the year after five seasons or ten months—The tradi- tion about the sun falling beyond the sky—Annual Sattras— Their type, the Gavâm-ayanam or the Cows' walk—Lasted for 10 or 12 months according to the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa —Two passages from the Taittirîya Samhitâ describing the Gavâm-ayanam—Mention 10 months' duration of the Sattra, but give no reason except that it was an ancient practice —Plainly indicates an ancient sacrificial year of ten months —Comparison with the old Roman year of ten months or 304 days—How the rest of 360 days were disposed of by the Romans not yet known—They represented a long period of darkness according to the legend of the Dashagvas—Thus lead- ing to the Arctic theory—Prof. Max Muller on the threefold nature of cows in the Vedas—Cows as animals, rain and dawns or days in the Ṛig-Veda—Ten months' Cows' walk thus means the ten months' duration of ordinary days and nights—350 oxen of Helios—Implies a night of ten days—The stealing of Apollon's oxen by Hermes—Cows stolen by Vritra in the Vedas —Represent the stealing of day-cows thereby causing the long night—Further sacrificial evidence from the Vedas—Classifi- cation of the Soma-sacrifices—Difference between Ekâha and Ahîna—A hundred nightly sacrifices—Annual Sattras like the Gavâm-ayanam—Model outline or scheme of ceremonies therein—Other modifications of the same—All at present based upon a civil year--But lasted for ten months in ancient times--Night-sacrifices now included amongst day-sacrifices —The reason why the former extend only over 100 nights is yet unexplained--Appropriately accounted for on the Arctic theory—Soma juice extracted at night in the Atirâtra, or the trans nocturnal sacrifice even now--The analogy applied to other night-sacrifices—Râtri Sattras were the sacrifices of the long night in ancient times—Their object--Soma libations exclusively offered to Indra to help him in his fight against

THE COWS' WALK. 189 Vala—Shata-râtra represented the maximum duration of the long night—Corroborated by Aditi's legend of seven months' sunshine —Explains why Indra was called 'Shata-kratu in the Purânas— The epithet misunderstood by Western scholars—Similarity between Soma and Ashvamedha sacrifices—The epithet Shata- kratu, unlike other epithets, never paraphrased in the Vedas —Implies that it was peculiar or proper to Indra—Dr. Haug's view that kratu means a sacrifice in the Vedas—Hundred forts or puraḥ (cities) of Vritra—Explained as hundred seats of dark- ness or nights—Legend of Tishtrya's fight with Apaosha in the Avesta—Only a reproduction of Indra's fight with Vritra—Tish- trya's fight described as lasting from one to a hundred nights in the Avesta—Forms an independent corroboration of hundred nightly Soma sacrifices—The phrase sato-karahe found in the Avesta—The meaning and nature of Ati-râtra discussed—Means a trans-nocturnal Soma sacrifice at either end of the long night —Production of the cycle of day and night therefrom—Hence a fitting introduction to the annual Sattras—Marked the close of the long night and the beginning of the period of sunshine— Sattra, Ati-râtra, night-sacrifices and Ati-râtra again thus formed the yearly round of sacrifices in ancient times—Clearly indicate the existence of a long darkness of 100 nights in the ancient year —Ancient sacrificial system thus corresponded with the ancient year—Adaptation of both to the new home effected by the Brâhmaṇas, like Numa's reform in the old Roman Calendar— The importance of the results of sacrificial evidence. THE legend of the Dashagvas, who completed their sa- crifices during ten months, is not the only relic of the an- cient year preserved in the sacrificial literature. The Pra- vargya ceremony, which is described in the Aitareya Brâh- maṇa, (I, 18-22), furnishes us with another instance, where a reference to the old year seems to be clearly indicated. Dr. Haug, in his translation of the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa, has fully described this ceremony in a note to I, 18. It lasts for three days and precedes the animal and the Soma sacrifice, as no one is allowed to take part in the Soma feast without having undergone this ceremony. The whole ceremony symbolises the

190 THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS. revival of the sun or the sacrificial ceremony (yajña), which, for the time being, is preserved as seed in order that it may grow again in due time (Ait. Br. I, 18). Thus one of the chief implements used in the ceremony is a peculiar earthen pot called Gharma or Mahâvîra. Placing it on the Vedic altar the Adhvaryu makes a circle of clay called khara, because it is made of earth brought on the back of a donkey to the sacrificial ground. He places the pot on the circle and heats it so as to make it quite hot (gharma). It is then lifted by means of two shaphas (two wooden pieces), and then milking a cow, the milk is poured into the heated pot and mixed with the milk of a goat whose kid is dead. After this has been done, the contents of the Mahvâvira are thrown into the Âhavanîya fire. But all the contents of the pot are not thus thrown away, for the Hotṛi is described as eating the remainder of the contents of the Gharma, which are said to be full of honey, full of sap, full of food and quite hot. The Aitareya Brâhmaṇa (I, 22) gives us a rational of this ceremony as follows, "The milk in the vessel is the seed. This seed (in the shape of milk) is poured in Agni (fire) as the womb of the gods for production, for Agni is the womb of the gods." This explanation proves the symbolic nature of the ceremony, and shows that the sun, the sacrifice or the year is thus preserved as seed for some time, and then revived at the proper season. The Mantra or the verse, which is reci- ted on the occasion of pouring the milk into the Mahâvîra, is taken from the Ṛig-Veda VIII, 72 (61), 8, and it is very likely that the verse was selected not simply on account of mere verbal correspondence. The hymn, where this verse occurs, is rather obscure. But the verse itself, as well as the two preceding verses (VIII, 72 (61), 6–7–8), present no verbal diffi- culty and may be translated as follows:— "6. And now that mighty and great chariot of his with horses, (as well as) the line of his chariot, is seen."

THE COWS' WALK 191 "7. The seven milk the one, and the two create the five, on the ocean's loud-sounding bank." "8. With the ten of Vivasvat, Indra, by his three-fold hammer, caused the heaven's bucket to drop down."* Here, first of all, we are told that his (sun's) chariot, the great chariot with horses, has become visible, evidently mean- ing that the dawn has made its appearance on the horizon. Then the seven, probably the seven Hotṛis, or seven rivers, are said to milk this dawn and produce the two. This milking is a familiar process in the Ṛig-Veda, and in one place the cows of the morning are said to be milked from darkness (I, 33, 10). The two evidently mean day and night, and as soon as they are milked, they give rise to the five seasons. The day and the night are said to be the two mothers of Sûrya in III, 55, 6, and here they are the mothers of the five seasons. What becomes after the expiry of the seasons is described in the eighth verse. It says that with the ten of Vivasvat, or with the lapse of ten months, Indra with his three-fold hammer shook down the heavenly jar. This means that the three storing places of the aerial waters (VII, 101, 4) were all emptied into the ocean at this time, and along with it the sun also went to the lower world, for sunlight is described to be three-fold in VII, 101, 2, and Sâyaṇa there quotes the Taittirîya Saṁhitâ (II, 1, 2, 5), which says that the sun has three lights, the morning light being the Vasanta, the mid-day the Grîshma, and the evening the Sharad. The verse, therefore, obviously refers to the three-fold courses of waters in the heaven and the three-fold light of the sun; and all this is said to come to an end with the ten of Vivasvat. The sun and the sacrifice are then preserved as seed to be re-generated some time after,—a process symbolised in the Pravargya ceremony. The

• Ṛig. VIII, 72, 6-8,—उतो न्वस्य यन्महदश्वावद्योजनं बृहत् । दामा रथस्य ददृशे ॥ दुहन्ति सप्तैकामुप द्वा पञ्च सृजतः । तीर्थे सिन्धोरधिस्वरे आ दशभिर्विवस्वत इंद्रः कोशमचुच्यवीत् । खेदां त्रिवृता दिवः ॥