रूपमण्डन एवं देवमूर्त्ति-प्रकरणम् (मण्डन सूत्रधार - प्राचीन मूर्तिकला एवं देव-प्रतिमा लक्षण सटीक)

[ 20 ] The Buddha-pratimā-lakṣaṇam is preserved also in a Chinese version.⁵⁸ We thus have three versions of this Śilpa text— the original Sanskrit, the Tibetan and the Chinese Translations, for comparison. But the Jainas preceded the Buddhists in the adoption of an iconolatrous cult. Very probably, the artistic study, for representation, of the undraped human body, originated with the Nirgrantha and the Ājīvika ascetics, who went about naked and had daily chances for observing the natural bodily forms, in course of their ascetic practices ⁵⁹ Indeed, the Jainas contributed, from early times, very considerably to the develop- ment of the plastic and the graphic arts of India.⁶⁰ Though the Buddhists as well as the Jainas have made important contributions to art the Brāhmaṇic art traditions—as contained in the Śilpa-śāstras, are perhaps much earlier. The Vāstu-śāstras and its subsidiary branch the Śilpa-śāstras have been generally included into one of the Upavedas— the Artha-śāstra, by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī⁶¹:—

to prepare for my personal use a Nāgarī transcription of this important Text and its Ceylonese Commentary. This learned monk has also undertaken to transcribe in Nāgarī, for my use, the two remaining chapters of the Sāriputra, as also the Rūpāvalī. I am preparing to publish critical editions of these important Texts of Buddhistic Art in near future. 58. See Haridas Mitra : Op. cit., Appendix : Tsao-siang-tou-leang- king. 59a. See Berthold Laufer : Op. cit., Einleitung. Seit 8 und Seit 17. 59b. The present writer, owes it to the kindness of the learned Muni Jina-vijayajī, the information regarding the existence of a single Jaina Śilpa Canon. It is in a fragmentary state of preservation and in MS. The Authorship of the Work is ascribed to Thakkar Ph(F)eru. 60. Full discussions of these questions have been given in my Contributions to (the study of) Indian Iconometry, in course of publication. 61. Madhusūdana Sarasvatī : Prasthāna-bheda. (Ed., T. Subraya Śāstrī, Mangalore).

[ 21 ] अथोपवेदाः ॥ आयुर्वेदो, धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्ववेदोऽर्थशास्त्रं चेति चत्वार उपवेदाः ॥ ॥ अथार्थशास्त्राणि ॥ एवमर्थशास्त्रं च बहुविधम् । नीतिशास्त्रं [अश्वशास्त्रं] शिल्पशास्त्रं सूप[कार-] शास्त्रं चतुष्षष्टिकलाशास्त्रं चेति । अपि च भौतिकादिभौतिकशास्त्राण्यपि । नानामुनिभिः प्रणीतं तत्सर्वं[ । ] तस्य सर्वस्य च लौकिकत(व)त्प्रयोजनभेदो द्रष्टव्यः ॥ But there is hardly any authority or cogency, for including the sciences of art, architecture, sculpture etc.—the Vāstu-śāstras and the Śilpa-śāstras, into the science of polity—the Artha- śāstra. On the other hand, the preparation of the Gnomon Śaṅku- nirmāṇam, and ascertaining by it the cardinal points (of the compass), the plotting of the ground-plan by means of the plumb and other lines Sūtra-pāta etc., are really subjects, appertaining alike both to the Vedāṅgic—Jyautiṣa, (Kalpa) Śulva-sūtras, and the Śilpa-śāstras. The Śilpa-śāstras are therefore closely related to the Vedāṅgas and must be regarded as a Vedic Upāṅga. The Śulva-sūtras⁶²ᵃ form supplementary parts of the Kalpa- sūtras and prescribe rules for the construction of sacrificial Altars— Śulva having the sense of Rajju, cords for measurement of distances. The two most important treatises of Śulvasūtras are those of Baudhāyana and Āpastamba. Two smaller treatises of later dates, are the Mānava and the Maitrāyaṇīya Śulva-sūtras. There is also a Kātyāyana Śulva Pariśiṣṭa, belonging to the Śukla Yajuṣ.⁶²ᵇ The emendations (within brackets) of the Nāgarī Text, are by the present writer, from a comparison of the different editions. 62a. Dr. G. Thibaut : Sūlva Sūtras. J. A. S. B. Part I. 1875 ; Also, the Paṇḍit. Old Series (1874, 1876) Vols. IX & X ; and New Series (1876, 1882) Vols. I & IV. 62b. Prof. M. Winternitz : A History of Indian Literature. Vol. I, (Cal. Univ. 1927). P. 277. "Only in the Black Yajurveda schools of Baudhāyana and of Āpastamba do we find Kalpasūtras containing all the four kinds of sūtra texts, Śrauta, Gṛhya, Dharma and Śulva-sūtras ; and

[ 22 ] The Śulva-sūtras give directions for construction of the fire Altars, the Vedis and the Citis etc. From the root ciñ cayane, to collect —— are derived, the three most important terms :— a. Citi—Sacrificial altars, for gathering the holy fire agnicayana, agnyādhāna. b. Citā—The funeral pyre for the cremation of dead bodies. c. Caitya—Monuments enclosing post-cremation human remains, sacred relics—the Buddhadhātu, etc. in these cases it can be proved that these works are indeed so interconnected that, to a certain extent, they can be regarded as the four volumes of a uniform work. It is possible that Baudhāyana and Āpastamba were actually the authors of complete Kalpasūtras comprising all the four kinds of texts. But even if they were not the actual authors, at all events, the Śrauta, Gṛhya, Dharma and Śulvasūtras of Baudhāyana and Āpastamba schools are works composed on a uniform plan, of these two schools* of the Yajurveda.… * The Baudhāyana-Śulvasūtra has been edited and translated by G. Thibaut in the "Pandit", Vols. IXff ; the Āpastambīya-Śulvasūtra ed. and translated into German by Albert Bürk. ZDMG., Vols. 55, 56, 1901—2.*” P. 278. "The Śrauta, Gṛhya and Śulvasūtras of the Mānava school*, and the Kāṭhaka-Gṛhyasūtra, which is related to the Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra, come under the Maitrayaṇī-saṃhitā... * The Mānava-Śrautasūtra is perhaps the oldest Śrautasūtra. Garbe has shown that it is certainly older than Āpastamba who refers to it. P. 278-79. "To the White Yajurveda belong : a Kātyāyana-Śrauta sūtra, a Pāraskara Gṛhyasūtra and a Kātyāyana-Śulva-sūtra.* * A Pariśiṣṭa to this (Kātīyam Śulvapariśiṣṭam)—ed. by G. Thibaut in "Pandit", N. S., Vol. 4.*” P. 271. "Ritual (Kalpa), which constitutes the chief contents of the Brāhmaṇas, is...the first Vedāṅga to receive systematic treatment in special manuals, the so-called Kalpasūtras. They arose out of the need for compiling the rules for the sacrificial ritual in a shorter, more manageable and connected form for the practical purposes of the priests." P. 275. "The Śulvasūtras, which are directly attached to the Śrauta- sūtras, should be mentioned in connection with these Kalpasūtras. They

[ 23 ] Indeed, the beginnings of the Vāstu-śāstras and the Śilpa- śāstras are to be traceable to the Vedāṅgic Jyautiṣa, (Kalpa) Śulva- sūtras⁶³ on the one hand, and to the Tāntrika ritualistic Yantras and Maṇḍalas⁶⁴ etc., on the other. Among the treatises on Nīti and its sub-class Vārtā and on Jyotiṣa, the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, the Śukranīti and the Bṛhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira call for special notice. The Indian Artha and the Nīti Śāstras have been called poly-technical treatises⁶⁵; and the Vārtā appertains to Economics.⁶⁶ The Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya devotes some six or seven chapters to town-planning, the construction of residential build- ings and fort, and specially military architecture. The Artha- śāstra of Kauṭilya is an old work but in its present form not older than the 3rd century A.C.⁶⁷ In ‘Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, Viśālākṣa, Bāhudantiputra, Bṛhaspati and Uśanas have been cited as teachers of Artha. Compare also Kāmasūtra, p. 3f., where it is narrated, that from the great work by the creator Brahman on the Trivarga, Manu separated the part dealing with Dharma, Bṛhaspati—that on Artha and Nandin, Śiva's servant—the one on Kāma. Mahā- bhārata, XII, 59, 28ff., 76ff.’ contain exact rules for the measurement (Śulva means "measuring- string") and the building of the place of sacrifice and the fire-altars, and as the oldest works on Indian Geometry, are of no little importance for the history of science." 63. See Note 62. Supra. 64. For examples, see श्रीश्रीशारदातिलकतन्त्रम् । Shāradātilakatantram, with commentary पदार्थादर्श। Padārthādarsha. Edited by Aṭalānanda Sarasvatī. Tantrik Texts Vols. XVI. and XVII. Paṭala 3. 65. P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch, p. 132. 66. Narendranath Law: Vārtā—The ancient Hindu Economics, Ind. Antiq., Vol. XLVII, p. 256. 67. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III Band, (Leipzig. 1922), p. 523.

[ 24 ] 'Viśālākṣa—the great-eyed one, is one name of Śiva. And Bāhudantin is another name of Indra'.⁶⁸ In the Matsya Purāṇa, Viśālākṣa, Nandin, Indra, Śukra and Bṛhaspati are, all of them, cited as teachers of Śilpa.⁶⁹ Among them Nandikeśvara or Nandiśvara was also an ancient teacher of Kāmaśāstra. Besides, this there is one Nandi- keśvara who was the author of an work on Abhinaya—Abhinaya- darpaṇam, 'the Mirror of Gestures'.⁷⁰ 'Bṛhaspati is at the same time a teacher of the Lokāyata system, and there is close relationship, between Lokāyata and Arthaśāstra. From the Mahābhārata, it is learnt, that the Indian Tradition regarded Bṛhaspati as the Founder of the Arthaśāstra. This old Arthaśāstra of Bṛhaspati, alas, is preserved to us only in a version strongly altered and mixed-up with modern elements.'⁷¹ 'The Śukranīti⁷² i. e., the Textbook on Politics written by Śukra or Uśanas is a work of quite recent times, if we do not call 68. See Dr. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III Band. (Leipzig. 1922), pp. 507-8 and p. 508 Note 1. Free translation of this Note is given above. 69. See Text and Note 25. Supra. 70. Nandikeśvara's Abhinaya-darpaṇam. Edited by Manomohan Ghosh. Calcutta Sanskrit Series. No. 5. (Metropolitan Printing and Publishing House, Ltd. Calcutta, 1934). For further information regarding Nandi- keśvara, see the present writer (Haridas Mitra's) : Sadāśiva Worship. J.P.A.S.B. (New Series). Vol. XXIX, 1933. App. III, see under Nandi- keśvara. 71. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, Band III, p. 508. (The above passage has been rendered freely into English, from this book, by the present writer. 72. M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 532 (Free Translation). "Besides the edition of Śukranīti of G. Oppert (Madras, 1882) there is also one of Jīvānanda Vidyāsāgara (Calcutta, 1882) and several Indian Prints with translations in Bengali, Marāthi and Hindi. Text : another Ed. by B. K. Sarkar (New York, 1915); Eng. Transl., by the same (Allahabad). On

[ 25 ] it, a forgery. Whether the remnants of an old Arthaśāstra have been preserved in the Śukranīti or not must be investigated first.’ The Śukranīti in an older form may be anterior to the Matsya-P., which mentions Śukrācārya, as one of the eighteen authorities of architecture—Vāstuśāstropadeśakas.⁷³ The Śukranīti deals with architecture and sculpture in chapter IV, sections 4 and 6. There are frequent and casual references to both these subjects in other portions of the treatise as well.⁷⁴ ‘Varāhamihira’s Bṛhatsaṃhitā is one of the most important works of the Indian literature. It is a principal work on natural Astrology. As this subject is of importance in all departments of life, all the varied branches of the public and the private life have been treated in the work. Hence it partakes to some extent of an encyclopædic character and is concerned with numerous other arts and sciences’.⁷⁵ Thus the Bṛhatsaṃhitā, usually classed under the astro- nomical and astrological treatises, is but a semi-Purāṇa, dealing, as it does, with heterogeneous subjects like the Purāṇas themselves. ... In this treatise there are but five chapters devoted to both architecture and sculpture. But the subjects have been treated with a master hand. ... Quite consistently with his sense of proportion Varāhamihira devotes only one chapter to sculpture, in which details of images are described in a scientific manner which is the Śukranīti, B. K. Sarkar based The Positive Background of Hindu Sociology I, II (The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Allahabad)”. 73. Matsya-Purāṇam, (Ānandāśram Ed., 1907), chap. 252. See Note 25. supra. 74. P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Arch., p. 799 ; also see Śukranīti Text ; and the Engl. Transl. by B. K. Sarkar. 75. M. Winternitz : Geschichte III, p. 567. Bṛhatsaṃhitā :—Ed. by H. Kern (Bibliotheca Indica) ; Ed. by Mm. Sudhākara Dvivedin with the Commentary of Bhaṭṭotpala (Vizianagram Sanskrit Series) ; Transl. for the greater part by H. Kern. JRAS. (1870—75). Complete Translation by Chidambaram Iyer (Madura, 1884). D—4

[ 26 ] distinctly missing in other ancient literatures......in his treatise seven architectural authorities are mentioned distinctly."⁷⁶ The authorities of architecture and sculpture, specially mentioned are Maya and Viśvakarman, Garga and Manu, Nagnajit, Vasiṣṭha and Bhāskara.⁷⁷ CHAPTER III THE CANONS OF INDIAN ART (Contd.) While, it is not necessary to make anything more than only passing reference to the Vedic, the Epic (Itihāsa) and the Classical Sanskrit and the Buddhist literatures etc., on subjects like architecture, art etc., these being dealt with, at great lengths by more competent scholars, elsewhere, the Purāṇas in this connexion call for special notice⁷⁸. 76. P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch., p. 22. 77. भूमिकाङ्गुलमानेन मध्यस्याष्टोत्तरं शतम् । सार्धं हस्तद्वयं चैव कथितं विश्वकर्मणा ॥ २६ ॥ प्रासादलक्षणमिदं कथितं समासाद् गर्गेण यद्विरचितं तदिहास्ति सर्वम् । मन्वादिभिर्विरचितानि पृथूनि यानि तत्संस्कृतिं प्रति मयात्र कृतोऽधिकारः ॥ ३१ ॥ षट्पञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥ अष्टौ सीसकभागाः कांसस्य द्वौ तु रीतिकाभागः । मयकथितो योगोऽयं विज्ञेयो वज्रसंघातः ॥ ८ ॥ सप्तपञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥ स्वैरङ्गुलप्रमाणैर्द्वादश विस्तीर्णमायतं च मुखम् । नग्नजिता तु चतुर्दश दैर्घ्येण द्राविडं कथितम् ॥ ४ ॥ चतुरङ्गुलं वसिष्ठः कथयति नेत्रान्तकर्णयोर्विवरम् । अधरोऽङ्गुलप्रमाणस्तस्यार्धेनोत्तरोष्ठश्च ॥ ८ ॥ अञ्चलमूर्ध्वं दृष्ट्वा करोति चिन्तामधोमुखी दृष्टिः । सर्वप्रतिमास्वेवं शुभाशुभं भास्करोक्तसमम् ॥ ५२ ॥ अष्टपञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥ The Bṛhatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Ed. H. Kern, (Bibliotheca Indica). 78. For General information in full, regarding the Purāṇas, see :—

[ 27 ] Of the eighteen or nineteen Mahā-purāṇas, besides the other Upa-purāṇas⁷⁹, some nine have special reference to architec- ture and sculpture etc. Most of the Purāṇas are Vaiṣṇava and as many as fourteen of them are devoted to the worship of Viṣṇu ; but they deal with the images of all the three deities, Trimūrti, forming the Triad.

1. The Agni-purāṇa has sixteen chapters on Vāstu and Śilpa —one of them on town-planning, two on residential buildings and thirteen on sculpture.
2. The Garuḍa-purāṇa has two chapters on architecture and two on sculpture.
3. The Nāradīya-purāṇa treats only the construction of temples, reservoirs, wells and tanks in its one chapter.
4. The Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa, likewise, treats the construc- tion of temples and other buildings in its one chapter.
5. The Bhaviṣya-purāṇa has four chapters, three being devoted to sculpture and one on the architecture of temples.
6. The Matsya-purāṇa has eight comprehensive chapters dealing in great detail with architecture and sculpture, constituting M. Winternitz : A. History of Ind. Lit. Vol. I. Section II ; especially, pp. 517—586. About the Śilpa sections of the Purāṇas, see :— P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch. I. General Survey. III. The Epics. V. The Age of Mānasāra ; and also A Dictionary of Hindu Archit. Appendix II. ; N. Law : Vārtā—the Hindu Economics, Ind. Antiq., Vol. XLVII.
7. For full lists of the Purāṇas and the Upa-Purāṇas : see M. Monier- Williams : Indian Wisdom (1893, Lond), chapt. XV.—ff. Purāṇas ; and see, especially—about eighteen Purāṇas, pp. 513-14 and about eighteen Upa- Purāṇas, p. 521. Also, M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 532-33. “But the Matsya-Purāṇa mentions only four Upa-Purāṇas. The Brahma-vaivarta-P., without enumerating them, says that eighteen Upa-P. exist. The Kūrma-P. enumerates them.”

[ 28 ] the Vāstu-prakaraṇa i. e., the section on Architecture. In one of these chapters, accounts are given of the eighteen Vāstu- śāstropadeśakas, ancient masters of architecture. One chapter is devoted to columns, two to buildings, one to building-materials. Three chapters are exclusively devoted to sculpture—one being on Tālamāna, iconometry and two others on the Phallus. 7. The Liṅga-purāṇa has a single chapter on sacrificial pits, temples and the installation of deities. 8. The Vāyu-purāṇa has a single chapter about building temples on mountains. 9. The Skanda-purāṇa has three chapters on Vāstu and Śilpa. One chapter describes how for his daughter's marriage Himālaya had a pavillion constructed by Viśvakarman under the instruction of his Purohita Gargācārya and how clever portraits or life-like representations of all gods were made therein, and they struck even the gods themselves with awe and wonder. Another chapter describes the laying out by Viśvakarman himself, of a large city Mahīnagara. From another chapter, we come to know how a golden hall was made by Padmanidhi, at the command of Indradyumna, how Viśvakarman made three chariots at the command of Nārada and how their installation ceremony was performed by this ṛṣi. For informations regarding Vāstu, Śilpa and Citra — the most important Paurāṇik sources are the Agni, the Matsya and the Viṣṇudharmottaram. "The Matsya or Matsya-Purāṇa⁸⁰ . . . is one of the older works of the Purāṇa literature, or at least one of those which have preserved most of the ancient text, and do fair justice to the definition of a 'Purāṇa.' It commences with the story of the great flood out of which Viṣṇu, in the form of a fish (Matsya) saves only Manu. While the ship in which Manu is sailing 80. The Matsya-Purāṇa is published in Ānandāśram Sanskrit Series No. 54 and transl. into Engl., in SBH. (Pāṇini office, Allahabad) Vol. 17. See M. Winternitz : A Hist. of Ind. Lit. Vol. I, pp. 575-76.

[ 29 ] along is being drawn through the flood by the fish, there takes place between him and Viṣṇu, incarnated as a fish, a conversa- tion which forms the substance of the Purāṇa. Creation is treated in detail, then follow the genealogies...Neither are the usual geographical, astronomical and chronological sections absent, and according to V. A. Smith....the lists of kings in this Purāṇa are particularly reliable for the Andhra dynasty. It has very much in common with the Mahābhārata and the Harivaṁśa :...and there is often literal agreement. There are, however, very numerous later additions and interpolations. For instance...,ceremonies at the building of a house (chapts. 252—257), the erection and dedication of statues of deities, temples and palaces (chapts. 258—270)...etc. “As far as the religious content is concerned, the Matsya- Purāṇa might be called Śivaite with just as much reason as it is classed as Viṣṇuite. Religious festivals of the Vaiṣṇavas are described side by side with those of the Śaivas, and both Viṣṇu and Śiva legends are related. In chapter 13 Devi (“the Goddess”, Śiva’s wife Gauri) enumerates to Dakṣa the one hundred and eight names by which she wishes to be glorified. It is obvious that both sects used the work as a sacred book.”⁸¹

81. “Regarding the Matsya-Purāṇa, Professor H. H. Wilson writes :— ‘The Matsya-Purāṇa, it will be seen,...from...its contents, is a miscella- neous compilation, but including, in its contents, the elements of a genuine Purāṇa. At the same time, it is of too mixed a character to be considered as a genuine work of the Paurāṇik class ; and, upon examining it carefully, it may be suspected that it is indebted to various works, not only for its matter, but for its words. Although a Śaiva work, it is not exclusively so and it has not such sectarian absurdities as the Kūrma and Liṅga. It is a composition of con- siderable interest ; but, if it has extracted its materials from the Padma,— which it also quotes on one occasion, the specification of the Upapurāṇas— it is subsequent to that work and not very ancient.’ But modern scholars consider this Purāṇa as one of the oldest, in fact the Padma-Purāṇa seems to have borrowed from the Matsya and not the reverse. (Vide Vincent Smith's Early History of India. 3rd Ed., pp. 11, 21—23).

[ 30 ] "The Āgneya or Agni-purāṇa,⁸² is so called because it is supposed to have been communicated to Vasiṣṭha by Agni, It describes the incarnations (Avatāras) of Viṣṇu, among them also those as Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, where it confessedly follows the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata and Harivaṁśa. Although it commences with Viṣṇu,...it is yet essentially a Śivaite work and deals in detail with the mystic cult of the Liṅga and of Durgā. It also mentions Tāntric rites, gives instructions for the production of images of gods and their consecration and refers to the cult of Gaṇeśa (chapt. 71) and the sun-cult (chapt. 73)...But the cosmo- logical, geneological and geographical sections peculiar to the Purāṇas are not missing. The especially distinctive feature of this Purāṇa is, however, its encyclopædic characters. It actually deals with anything and everything. We find sections on Geography, Astronomy and Astrology,...on omina and potenta, house building and other occupations of daily life...To which age this remarkable encyclopædia or its separate parts belong, it is impossible to say." The Matsya-Purāṇa enumerates the names of eighteen ancient teachers of architecture, as quoted before. The passages have been interpreted as below.⁸³ "The Ṛṣis asked :— 'Sūta ! be gracious enough to tell us how royal palaces and other houses are constructed. Also explain to us what is Vāstu- Deva—1.' Sūta replied :—(1) Bhṛgu, (2) Atri, (3) Vasiṣṭha, (4) Viśva- karmā, (5) Maya, (6) Nārada, (7) Nagnajit, (8) Viśālākṣa, (9) Indra, (10) Brahmā, (11) Svāmikārtika, (12) Nandiśvara, (13) Śaunaka, (14) Garga, (15) Śrī Kṛṣṇa, (16) Aniruddha, 82. M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 566. Agni-P. ed. in Bibliotheca Indica (1873—79) and Ānandāśram Skt. Series, No. 41 ; Transl. by M. N. Dutt (Cal., 1901). 83. The Matsya-purāṇam. Transl. by A Taluqdar of Oudh. (The Sacred Books of the Hindus. Ed. by Major B. D. Basu. I. M. S. Vol. XVII.) Appendix X, by Sris Chandra Vidyarnava, p. cvi.

[ 31 ] (17) Śukra and (18) Bṛhaspati are the chief eighteen preceptors of the Vāstuśāstra. Lord Matsya had explained briefly the Vāstuśāstra to the King Vaivasvata Manu ; 2—4. Which I will now relate to you.” The Agni-Purāṇa⁸⁴ list of twenty-five authoritative texts, quoted before is interpreted thus :— “Hayagrīva said :—O, Brahman, hear me speak about the consecration of the images of Vishṇu and other gods—(1). I have already dealt with the principles of Pancharātra⁸⁵ and Saptarātra schools of philosophies which are classed by the Munis under twenty-five different heads as discussed in the following books or Tantras, viz. : 84. Agni-Purāṇam, Engl. prose transl. by Manmathanath Dutt. Cal., 1903. Chapter XXXIX. In the Introduction Mr. Datta writes :— “The contents of this Purāṇa clearly show that it has no sectarian leaning. It impartially treats of Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva and Śākta forms of worship. It is more a compendium of Sanskrit learning than the advocacy of any particular form of religion. It is classed among the Tāmasa or the delusive division of the Purāṇas”. Professor Wilson thus remarks on the general character of this Purāṇa. ‘......it is evident that it is a compilation from various works ; that consequently it has no claim in itself to any great antiquity, although from the absence of any exotic materials, it might be pronounced earlier, with perhaps a few exceptions, than the Mahomedan invasion. From the absence also of a controversial or sectarian spirit, it is probably anterior to the struggles that took place in 8th and 9th centuries of our era between the followers of Śiva and Viṣṇu’. 85. “The word Ratra signifies knowledge, and the Naradapancha- ratra, which is one of the standard religious works upholding the principles of the Pancharatra School of Philosophy, defines the term as meaning the sum total of the five distinct sorts of knowledge we have, of the external world through our senses :— रात्रञ्च ज्ञानवचनं ज्ञानं पञ्चविधं स्मृतम् । तेनेदं पञ्चरात्रञ्च प्रवदन्ति मनीषिणः ॥ अः १।१, नारदपञ्चरात्रम् ।

[ 32 ] (1) The Hayacirsa Tantram, which is the first and original book of the Pancharatra School, (2) the Trailokya Mohan Tantram, (3) the Baibhabum Tantram, (4) the Pouskaram Tantram, (5) the Prahlad Tantram, (6) the Garga, (7) the Galabum, (8) the Naradiya Tantram, (9) the Sampracnum Tantram, (10) the Sandilya Tantram, (11) the Vaishvakam, (12) the Svatatum, (13) the Shounakum Tantram, (14) the Vashistam, (15) the Gayansagar Tantram, (16) the Shaimbhubam, (17) the Kapil Tantram, (18) the Tarksa Tantram, (19) the Nārāyanikum, (20) the Atrayaum, (21) the Narasinha Tantram, (22) the Anandaksa, (23) the Arun Tantram, (24) the Boudhayan Tantram, (25) the Arsam or the Bicvoktam tantram which is a synopsis of the preceding one—(2)." Inspite of the many imperfections that have crept in through ages, and the ignorant mis-interpretation resulting apparently It may be safely asserted here that Vaiṣṇavism owes its origin to this school of philosophy, which, with the aid of several subsequent accretions of an article of faith or practice from the sister schools, has determined the nature and formation of its namesake in modern times. Śaṅkarācārya once questioned the soundness and orthodoxy of the tenets of Pāñcarātra School, and even attempted to prove their incompatibility with the principles of the Vedas. (Vide Śārīraka-Bhāṣya,—2-2-43, 2-2-44 and 2-4-25). Rāmānuja, however, held a contrary view and quoted ślokas from the Mahābhārata and other tantras to show that not only the Pāñcarātra School embodies within itself the highest principles of Indian Spiritualism, but that it is quite in harmony with the revelations of the Vedas like the Sāṅkhya Philosophy which too was denounced by Śaṅkara on account of its heterodoxy :— सांख्यं योगः पञ्चरात्रं वेदाः पाशुपतं तथा । किमेतान्येकनिष्ठानि पृथङ्गिष्ठानि वा मुने ॥ एवमेकं सांख्यवेदां(?) वेदारण्यकमेव वा । परस्पराङ्गान्येतानि पञ्चरात्रन्तु कथ्यते ॥ सांख्यं योगः पञ्चरात्रं वेदाः पाशुपतं तथा । आत्मप्रमाण्येतानि न हन्तव्यानि हेतुभिः ॥

( 33 ) from loss of traditions in North India, the Āgneya list of the Pāñcarātra Āgamas is conclusively proved to be authentic. “Now, in the case of the Pāñcarātra, tradition mentions one hundred and eight Saṃhitās, and in a few, texts about this number are actually enumerated. Such lists, coquetting with the sacred number 108, are, of course, open to suspicion.” “The fact, however, that none of the available lists of Saṃhitās, including those which pretend to give 108 names, actually conforms to this number but all of them enumerate either more names or less, is one thing telling in their favour ; and when, as is the case, it can further be shown that a respectable number of the texts enumerated are still available, while not a few of the others are found to be quoted or summarised in the later literature, and that a number of Saṃhitās which are not included in any of the lists, are either extant or quoted—then the value of the latter can no longer be denied. We have, consequently, collated those lists, four in all, and with them a fifth list found in the Agni- Pūrāṇa, and as a result offer the...table in which all the names... have been arranged in alphabetical order.” “The Kapiñjala list...comprises 106 names, the list of Pādma Tantra...112, that of Viṣṇu Tantra...141, that of Haya- śīrṣa Saṃhitā...34, and that found in the 39th adhyāya of Agni (Āgneya)-Purāṇa only 25. A still shorter list, namely that of the apocryphal Nāradīya, has not been taken into account.” The literature of the Pāñcarātras, like other sectarian literatures, falls into two broad divisions comprising respectively of works of inspired or divine origin and of human authorship The latter class,...treats chiefly what are called vidhi and prayoga and consists of digests, commentaries, extracts and studies on special subjects, and the like. The former class,...consists of the Saṃhitās or “compositions” (compendia), that is, metrical works D—5

( 34 ) dealing,...with a number of topics, if not the whole, of the Pāñca- rātra system.⁸⁶ “......of the principal subjects treated in the Pāñcarātra, the scientific student will probably find it best to distinguish the following ten :— (1) Philosophy ; (2) Linguistic occultism (mantra-śāstra) ; (3) Theory of magical figures (yantra-śāstra) ; (4) Practical magic (māyā-yoga) ; (5) Yoga ; (6) Temple-building (mandira-nirmāṇa) ; (7) Image-making (pratiṣṭhā-vidhi) ; (8) Domestic observances (saṁskāra, āhnika) ; (9) Social rules (varṇāśrama-dharma) ; (10) Public festivals (utsava)⁸⁷.” An examination of the principal subjects, treated in the Pāñca- rātras, will easily show the close relationship of many of these, with the Vāstu and the Śilpa-śāstras. In the evolution and the development of the Building, the Plastic and the Graphic Arts of India, —— the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa and the Kalpa (Śulva) Sūtras, the Śaiva Āgamas and the Śākta Tantras, the Purāṇas and the Pāñcarātras, etc., have, among the Brāhmaṇic Texts, made similar contributions. Even the Jainas and the Buddhists, did not lag far behind. It will, however, be out of place to make any discussion of the latter sources, here.

86. Otto Schrader, Op. cit. pp, 2-3 ff.
87. Ibid. p. 26.

CHAPTER IV THE PRESENT EDITION The preparation of critical Editions of the Sanskrit Texts on Śilpa (or, Tantra) is beset with many difficulties some of which are of a very serious character. The language is, on the one hand, obscure and full of techni- calities ; extraneous aids—in the shapes of explanatory comments and notes which are fortunately so abundant in the cases of other branches of Indian Literature are sadly wanting in the cases of the Śilpa (and the Tāntrik) Texts. On the other hand, the Manuscripts of these branches of Sanskrit, are mostly corrupt or in mutilated state, due, not only to the loss of art traditions but also among other reasons, to the indifference of the hereditary craftsmen and artists themselves to the literary works on the subject. There, however, prevails an unfortunate and regrettable attitude of mind which looks down upon these hereditary craftsmen and artists who have carried on with love and veneration even when there were no encouragements, the sacred duty of keeping up for generations, the flames of Indian artistic tradition alive. The Brāhmaṇic theologians have cast down the artists and the craftsmen⁸⁸. The Nītiśāstra-kāras have enumerated

88. Compare Brahma-vaivarta Purāṇam, Brahma Khaṇḍa, Adh. 10, Jātimālā. (From a MS., collected by the late Prof. Satishchandra Mitra), for the Daulatpur Hindu Academy, “জাতিমালা।” (?) অর্থাৎ পদ্মপুরাণ ও বহুবিধ পুরাণ শাস্ত্র হইতে সংগৃহীত। শ্রীমহেশ্চন্দ্র ( sic ! ) বিদ্যারত্ন কর্তৃক অনুবাদিত। হরিহর যন্ত্র। চিৎপুর রোড, বটতলা। সন ১২৭৪ সাল,৩২ আষাঢ়। Reprinted. বেঙ্গল রায় প্রেস। সন ১৩৩০ সাল। “জাতিকৌমুদী ও জাতিসঙ্কর।” শ্রীবেণীমাধব ন্যায়রত্ন কর্তৃক সঙ্কলিত। কুমুদবন্ধু যন্ত্র। সন ১২৯৩ সাল, ফাল্গুন।

( 36 ) the musicians along with the cut-throats, charlatans and rascals.⁸⁹ And, yet the Śilpa, the Saṅgīta and the Nāṭya etc., which have all reputed Ṛṣis of hoary antiquity, as their founders, owed their birth to divine inspiration. We have, therefore, here, another set of apparent paradoxes of Indian culture, which should provoke serious enquiry. Very elaborate descriptions are given of the merits (Phala- śruti and Artha-vāda) for raising pious foundations, or erecting sacred structures such as the dedication of an image that would accrue on the part of the donor, (dānapati).⁹⁰ Arts of music and “सूत्रधरो द्विजानान्तु शापेन पतितो भुवि। शीघ्रञ्च यज्ञकाष्ठानि न ददौ तेन हेतुना॥” १, ३ ‘পয়ার। যজ্ঞকাষ্ঠ শীঘ্র দান না করে ব্রাহ্মণে। শাপে সূত্রধর সে পতিত এ কারণে॥’ ২ “व्यक्ति(ति)क्रमेण चित्राणां सदयश्चित्रकरस्तथा। पतितो ब्रह्मशापेन ब्राह्मणानाञ्च कोपतः॥” १, ३ ‘পয়ার। ক্রমভিন্ন চিত্রদোষে জানি চিত্রকরে। শাপ দিয়া পতিত করিল বিপ্রবরে॥’ ২ 98. For example, see the rare old Nīti-Śāstra, Cākṣuṣīyam, fragments of which have been traced and published for the first time—A. S. Ramanath Ayyar : Chaksusiyam—an Arthasastra. JBORS Vol. XI, pp. 81—84. 90. तथा हि—श्रीगोपालभट्टकृते ‘श्रीहरिभक्तिविलासे’—१८ विलासे—श्रीमूर्चाविर्भावमाहात्म्ये— ‘विष्णुधर्मोत्तरे। देवस्य प्रतिमायान्तु यावन्तः परमाणवः; तावद्वर्षसहस्राणि विष्णुलोके महीयते।’ तथा—‘श्री हरि०— १८ विलासे—श्रीमूर्ति प्रतिष्ठामाहात्म्ये— ‘मात्स्ये। प्रतिष्ठायाः सुराणां च देवतार्चातृकीर्त्तनात्। दैवयज्ञोत्सवाच्चापि बन्धनेन विमुच्यते॥’ तथा—‘संबुद्धाभाषित-प्रतिमालक्षण-विवरणम्’ यावन्तः परमाणवो भगवत्तत्त्वेषु बिम्बेषु वा। तत्क्षणाद्दिंवि भूतले च नियतं तावन्ति—॥ ――――संपदोऽखिला भुक्त्वा च सर्वं सुखम्। प्रान्ते जन्मजरावपत्तिरहितं प्राप्नोति बौद्धं पदम्॥

( 37 ) dancing have similarly been glorified⁹¹ although the artists and craftsmen themselves, curiously enough, occupy only degraded positions in society. Thus the preservation of Śilpa Texts in the hands of the hereditary artists and craftsmen who were looked down upon, was beset with some difficulty. But mistakes and lapses in the Mss. are fortunately seldom, errors of commission, and not a few, may be due to inexpert scribes. Unless and until better readings, supported by substantial grounds, can be suggested, it is not allowable to reject altogether the only available texts which bear the stamp of tradition through a long succession of generations. It is, therefore, very necessary to sift very thoroughly the apparently corrupt and contradictory readings with the entire critical apparatus at our disposal.⁹² And when there is a great paucity of materials in the form of Mss., as is the case with the present text Devata-mūrti- Prakaraṇam, it is necessary to formulate some general laws, or, to deduce some principles for future guidance, in preparing a critical edition. Secondly, it is also very urgent to devise ways and means, for interpreting the texts of Śilpa, when all extraneous aids are so inaccessible.

91. Compare Nandikeśvara's Abhinayadarpaṇam (Critical Ed. of the Text with Introd., Transl., Notes and Illustrations. By Manomohan Ghosh., Cal. Skt. Series, No. V.), [Nāṭyapraśaṁsā], śl. 7b—11a (and Engl. Transl.). For the Saṅgīta-śāstra etc., also, it is possible to give numerous examples, of such eulogy.
92. It would not be, out of place, to compare here, for example, the immense help, which the present writer derived, by subjecting the apparently confusing readings to Epigraphic and Palaeographic Tests, elsewhere, while preparing his edition of the important Śilpa Text : The Buddhapratimā-lakṣaṇam. The Sarasvatī Bhavana Sanskrit Texts, No. 48. (Benares, 1933). Out of a hopeless medley and confused jumble of data, careful scrutiny and repeated efforts enabled the present writer, to deduce a number of most important principles.

( 38 ) In close analogy to the rules of interpretations, the Pari- bhāshās of Vyākaraṇa and Mīmāṁsā Śāstras, we must formulate some rules, for these Śilpa Texts, too. As the (Śilpa) Vāstu Śāstras are technical and obscure in language, no violent corrections or half-hazard emendations of texts are warrantable. Similar is the case with the Tāntrik and Kindred Texts. Some of the first rules, that should be made, may be as follows :— (a) Not a single syllable should be ommited or even a half, in the (Śilpa) Vāstu and the Tāntrik Texts. मात्रालाघवो नाऽनुमन्तव्यो वास्तु-शिल्प-तन्त्रशास्त्रादिषु । (b) As in the Mīmāṁsā Śāstra, we should try to account for and harmonise any apparent contradictions. When some of the texts are really contradictory, they may be considered to be due to differences in recensions, sections or topics. सति भिन्नवाक्यत्वे शाखाभेदः प्रकरणभेदो विषयभेदो वाऽवगन्तव्यः । (c) Corrections should be reduced to the minimum e. g., like addition of an Akṣara, as a-kāra or anusvāra. स्तोकमात्रा संशुद्धिः । योगोऽकाराऽनुस्वारादीनाम् । (d) For determining the correct readings not only the metrical and the grammatical considerations should be regarded as important but also the Epigraphic data are equally valuable. पाठनिर्णये छन्दोव्याकरणवत् प्रामाण्यं लिपिशास्त्रस्य । Besides these four main principles, other important ones might suggest themselves or be evolved. Now, we must turn back to the important question of the interpretation of texts. As has been stated before, there is a great paucity of aids to explanation. Commentaries, notes, so far as both the (Śilpa) Vāstu and the Tantra Śāstras are concerned, are

( 39 ) very few. Yet these subjects are of so great importance, that some methods must be found out for the correct understanding of these texts. Speaking from personal experience, the present writer can confidently recommend two very certain methods. I. The first method is to compare Texts kindred, or, parallel and to compare, them again and again. By kinship, must be understood similarity as regards essence and spirit, and proximity in point of time and place. For there can be no real comparisons between subjects which have no points of similarity e. g., between a donkey and a mush-room. Sādṛśya, similarity, in the most rigorous technical sense, is defined as follows⁹³ :— तद्भिन्नत्वे सति तद्गतभूयोधर्मवत्त्वं सादृश्यम् । Two objects, though they be different, if they have a sufficient number of common characteristics, might be regarded as Similar. The essence of similarity, Sādṛśya is this common characteristic Sāmānya dharma. Some notable examples of objects with such common features are the Abhinaya-hastas, the Nāṭya-hastas or Karaṇas, the Śilpa-hastas and the Tāntrika Mudrās, which may be compared with one another. But it would be useless waste of time and energy to try to compare heterogeneous objects and such comparisons will be impossible when kinship etc., are lacking. II. The second important method of interpretation of obscure passages is to trace these back, if possible, to the Source Books. Especially, when we have to do with compilations, (as is the case, with the present work, the Devatāmūrti-Prakaraṇa) which are based entirely on earlier texts, this method is very effective; and it is at once corroborative and corrective; for all citations can be thus checked at once and with absolute certainty. 93. See Annambhaṭṭa's Tarkasaṃgraha : See Mm. Bhīmācārya Jhalaḳīkar : Nyāyakośa (Bombay Skt. Series) S. V. सादृश्यम्.