द ब्यूटीफुल ट्री: १८वीं सदी में भारत की स्वदेशी गुरुकुल शिक्षा (धर्मपाल)

which scholars usually continue at school, the monthly or yearly charge to the scholars and other particulars is concisely stated. 4. It will be observed that the schools now existing in the country are for the most part supported by the payments of the people who send their children to them for instruction. The rate of payment for each scholar varies in different districts and according to the different circumstance of the parents of the pupils, from 1 anna to 4 rupees per mensem, the ordinary rate among the poorer classes appears to be generally about 4 annas, and seldom to exceed ½ rupee. 5. In a few districts only there are endowments for the support of schools and colleges. In Rajahmundry 69 teachers of Sciences possess endowments in land, and 13 allowances in money granted by former Zemindars. In Nellore certain individuals, Bramins and Mussulmans, are in possession of allowances in land and money granted by the Carnatic Government for teaching the Vedas, etc., and Arabic and Persian respectively to the amount of rupees 1,467 per annum. In the Northern Division of Arcot, 28 colleges are supported by mauniums and Marahs granted by former governments yielding rupees 516 per annum, and 6 Persian schools are maintained at the public expense at an annual charge of rupees 1,861. In Salem Enam lands estimated to yield rupees 1,109 per annum are appropriated to the support of 20 teachers of Theology, etc., and one Mussulman school has land allowed for its support yielding annually 20 rupees. In Tanjore 44 schools and 71 colleges are supported by His Highness the Rajah—There is no school, or college, endowed particularly by the Circar but there are free schools maintained by the Mission established in Tanjore which possess a Survamanniam, the annual value whereof is estimated at 1,100 rupees. In the District of Trichinopoly there are 7 schools which possess endowments in land to the extent of 46 cawnies supported by the Zamorin Rajah which has also some land attached granted by former governments. In Malabar there is one college to it. 6. It does not appear from the Reports of the Collectors that any public endowments for the advancement of learning have been diverted from their original purpose or resumed except in Salem and Coimbatore. The Collector of Salem says that lands yielding rupees 384 formerly devoted to this object were sequestered before the acquisition of the country by the British 233

Government and their produce has since been included in the revenue of government. The Principal Collector of Coimbatore reports that Mauniums, etc., granted in former times for the support of colleges to the value of rupees 2,208 have been resumed either by the Mussulman or the British Government. 7. The late Collector of Bellary having stated in his report that none of the institutions for education at present existing in that district derive support from the state added ‘there is no doubt that in former times especially under the Hindoo Government very large grants both in money and in land were issued for the support of learning’, and further stated his opinion that many of the Yeomiahs and Shrotriums now held by Bramins in the district may be traced to this source. No conditions he observed ‘are stated in the grants issued by the former governments; they all purport to flow from the free bounty of the ruling power merely to aid the maintenance of some holy or learned man. But they were almost universally granted to learned or religious persons, who maintained schools for one or more of the Sciences and taught therein gratuitously; and though not expressed in the deed itself the duty of continuing such gratuitous instruction was certainly implied in all such grants.’ It does not appear upon what grounds Mr Campbell founded his opinion so confidently that the implied condition of the grants referred to was the continuance of gratuitous instruction; but it seems not to be the result of particular investigation. Mr Campbell further suggested with the view of covering the expense of a general arrangement proposed by him in this report for the improvement of education that it might be provided that ‘on the demise—of any persons now holding Yeomiahs or alienated lands a new enquiry be instituted and that though the same may have been continued for more than one generation by the British Government it may be resumed and carried to a new fund to be termed, “the school fund”, unless it is clearly stated in the body of the original grant to be hereditary, or the intention of the ruling power at the time to make such grant hereditary be clearly proved to the satisfaction of government.’ The Board have little doubt that the resumption of lands now alienated, in the manner suggested by Mr Campbell would produce ample funds for the purpose contemplated but they conceive that the two objects in view, namely, the recovery of alienated lands, and the establishment of a fund for the support of schools should be kept entirely distinct and separate. The establishment of schools in every part of the country under any general plan should be regulated 234

by the wants of the people in the respect to education and should not in any degree depend upon the accidental circumstance of the amount of a particular fund being great or less in different situations. 8. The Board think it proper to offer this remark in regard to the suggestion of Mr Campbell which has just been noticed, but it appears to them to be unnecessary at this time to discuss the plan proposed by him for the improvement of education and his general speculations on the subject conceiving it to be the desire of government at present only to receive information regarding the actual state of education in order that it may be seen what are the deficiencies to be supplied. 9. That these deficiencies are lamentably great is shown in every one of the reports now submitted, and the general result of the whole from which it appears that out of a population estimated by the Census at above 12 million and a half only about 1,88,000 are receiving instruction or about 13¾ percent is most unsatisfactory. 10. It will be remarked that no statement is submitted of the number of schools, etc., in Canara. The late Principal Collector reported that education is conducted in that district so much in private that any statement of the number of schools and of the scholars attending them would be of little or no use, but on the contrary rather fallacious in forming an estimate of the proportion of the population receiving instruction. He stated generally that there are no colleges in Canara for the cultivation of ‘abstract Science, neither are there any fixed schools and masters to teach in them. There is no instance known of any institution of the above descriptions having even received support in any shape from the former government.’ 11. Notwithstanding the observations of Mr Harris the Board have thought it proper to call again upon the present Principal Collector to furnish a Statement of Schools, etc., prepared in the form transmitted by government which shall be submitted to the Hon’ble the Governor-in-Council as soon as it is received. Fort St. George, J. Dent, 21st February, 1825. Secretary. (Statement on following pages) 235

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REMARKS Ganjam: There are no schools or colleges in this district endowed by the Circar. The teachers in the schools are paid monthly by the scholars at various rates from 4 annas to 1 rupee each. The Shastras, etc., are usually taught privately to Bramins. The statement is not complete in respect to the Hill Zemindaries from which satisfactory accounts could not be procured. Vizagapatam: It does not appear that there are any colleges in this district. The schools are not endowed by the public; 2 only are stated to receive a payment from the Zemindar of Chamoodoo at the rate of 50 rupees annually. The teachers are paid at various rates from one anna to 1 rupee for each scholar per mensem. Private teachers in families of respectability are paid a monthly or yearly stipend according to their acquirement and the rank and opulence of their employer. Rajahmundry: Some of the schools in this district are endowed by the public. The teachers are paid by the scholars at rates varying from 1 rupee to 2 annas, 7 annas being the average rate per mensem. The scholars are entered at school in their fifth year and continue at their studies from 5 to 7 years. The number of professors or teachers of the Sciences is 279; of these 69 possess allowances in land and 13 in money granted by former Zemindars; 196 teach their scholars without fee or reward and only one is supported by his scholars. In the villages in which no schools at present exist the inhabitants are desirous of having them established. It might be done with a small contribution from government to the pay of the teachers. The Collector considered 2 rupees a month to each to be sufficient. Masulipatam: None of the institutions for the purpose of education in this district appear to have been regularly endowed. One Charity School only is supported at Ellore by the Zemindar by the payment of a monthly stipend of 3 pagodas to the teacher. The scholars usually enter in the schools in their 5th year and continue in them until they are from 12 to 16 years of age. The greater proportion are then employed on public or private 242

business, the Vedika Bramins only being removed from schools to college for the purpose of being instructed in Theology and other Sciences. The charges on account of a boy at school are about the average of 6 annas for paper, cadjan, etc., and from 4 annas to 2 rupees to the school master monthly. The Sciences are taught in the colleges generally gratis by Bramins holding Mauniums, etc. Some teachers, however, are supported by contributions from their scholars but receive no fixed allowance. The average charge to a scholar at college for his subsistence, books, etc., is 60 rupees per annum. In most parts of the country instruction in the Vedas, etc., is also given by the Bramins privately. The schools in which the Persian language is taught are few. Mussulman scholars remain at school from 6 years of age to 15, the pay of the teachers is from ¼ to 1 rupee and the other charges of the scholars are estimated at 4 annas a month; some learned Mussulmans give instruction gratis. Guntoor: There are no schools in this district endowed by the public and no colleges for instruction in the Sciences. The Sciences are taught privately by learned Bramins without any remuneration. These Bramins generally hold mauniums, etc., granted by the ancient Zemindars and by the former governments for various reasons, but there is no instance of any grant in money or land, specially for the purpose of maintaining teachers of the Sciences. The charge for the education of a boy at school varies from 2 annas to 2 rupees monthly. Three rupees a month is requisite for the subsistence of a scholar while he is studying the Sciences. Nellore: This statement gives the number of schools in the district not endowed by the public. There are besides 26 individuals who have scholars as shown by a separate statement B viz. 15 Bramins, and 11 Mussulmans who are in possession of allowances in money and land granted by the Carnatic Government for teaching the Vedas, etc., and Arabic and Persian respectively to the amount of rupees 1,467 per annum. Boys are generally sent to school at 5 years of age where they are said to remain from 3 to 6 years. The school master receives from 2 annas to 4 rupees monthly for each scholar. The scholar has also to pay about one rupee for writing materials, etc., and his subsistence is estimated at 3 rupees a month. Besides his fixed allowance occasional presents are made by the scholars to their teacher. 243

The schools are not all of permanent continuance—some depend upon circumstances, schools being some times established by the joint subscriptions of several families especially for the education of their own children which being accomplished they are discontinued. The difference between the amount of population in this statement and in the report of the Census is accounted for by the population of the Zemindaries being included in the former and not in the latter. Bellary: None of the schools in this district at present derive support from the state. There appear to be no regular colleges but in 23 cases of instruction attended by Bramins exclusively some of the Sciences, etc., are taught imperfectly in the Sanscrit language. In the schools some children continue only 5 years, while others whose parents are opulent not infrequently remain as long as fourteen and fifteen years. It appears that the teacher is paid at various rates according to the class to which the scholar may belong—while learning the first rudiments it is common for the scholar to pay a quarter of a rupee and when arrived so far as to write on paper or at the higher branches of Arithmetic half a rupee per mensem. But on proceeding further such demands are made as exceed the means of most parents. Their children are therefore left only partially instructed—and there are multitudes who cannot avail themselves even of this imperfect education for their children. The diffusion of common instruction is said to be less extensive than it was formerly. In many villages where formerly there were schools, there are now none, and in many others where there were large schools, now only a few of the children of the most opulent are taught, others being unable from poverty to attend or to pay what is demanded. Instructions in the Sciences is given gratuitously as of old, by a few learned Bramins to their disciples. Cuddapah: There are in this District no public institutions for education supported by grants of land or allowances from the government, nor are any known to have existed. The schools which exist are supported by the parents of the scholars. The charge for instruction is variable rising as the scholar is promoted from the lowest to the higher classes. The average for the lowest class is about ¼ rupee per mensem, and increases to 1 rupee and 1½ rupee which rate it rarely exceeds. In the Bramin caste, boys are put to school at the age of 5 or 6 and among the Sudras at from 244

6 to 8. Boys are said to be kept at school generally no longer than 2 years in which time they are expected to have attained all that they are desired to acquire, that is a certain degree of knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic in which they are afterwards to improve themselves by practice at home, in a shop, or in a public office. The only schools which can be denominated public in this district are the charity schools at Cuddapah, supported by the European gentlemen of the place. There are no schools or colleges for instruction in the Sciences. Theology, Law and Astronomy are taught privately, the pupils residing in the houses of their preceptors. Besides the instruction afforded in the schools to those whose parents are able to pay for it, it is also given gratuitously in many places by Bramins to those of their own caste who have no other means of obtaining it—young Bramins for the sake of receiving instruction in this way, leave their homes and wait upon the preceptor in his own village, where they are supported by the daily charity of the Bramins residing in it. Chingleput: There are no colleges properly so called in this district but there are a few places in which the higher branches of learning are taught to a small number of pupils—a village school master earns from 3½ to 12 rupees per month—the average is not more than 7 rupees. It does not appear that any allowance was made by the Native Governments for the promotion of education but in some villages there are trifling mauniums from a quarter of a Cawny to 2 Cawnies of land for Theological teachers. N.D. Arcot: Of the 69 colleges in this district it appears by a separate statement No.2 submitted by the Principal Collector that 43 are for Theology, 24 for Law, etc., and 2 for Astronomy; 28 of these colleges are supported by mauniums and marahs granted by former governments yielding rupees 516 per annum—The allowance to each teacher for the lower class is rupees 3-8- per annum and for the higher class rupees 36-12-. Of the rest the greater number are free of charge and a few are supported by trifling contributions from the scholars. The period of attendance at the colleges is from 8 to 12 years. Of the Hindoo schools only 3 are free of charge. The rest are supported by payments from the scholars varying from 1 anna 3 pice per mensem to 1 rupee 12 annas. Of the Persian schools 6 are maintained at the public expense at a yearly charge of rupees 1,361. The greater 245

proportion are supported by the scholars who pay from 2 annas 6 pice to 2 rupees a month to their teachers. In the Hindoo schools the scholars continue 5 or 6 years, in the Mussulman schools 7 or 8 years. Of the 7 English schools 3 are free of charge and in the others the scholars pay monthly from 10 annas to 3 rupees 8 annas. It appears that this statement does not include the Zemindaries and Pollams which form a large portion of the district their population being estimated at nearly 3 lacs. S.D. Arcot: No allowance was ever granted by the Native Governments for the support of schools in this district. There are no public or private institutions for teaching Theology, Law, Astronomy, etc. The schools are supported entirely by the scholars who pay from 1 fanam to 1 pagoda monthly. Salem: None of the Hindoo schools in this district are endowed by the public and only one Mussulman school has land allowed for its support yielding 20 rupees per annum; a Yeomiah was enjoyed by a former master of this school amounting to 56 rupees a year. On his death it was discontinued having been on a tenure for life. The period of attendance at school is from 3 to 5 years. The yearly charge for each scholar is never less than 3 rupees a year in the Hindoo schools and from 15 to 20 rupees in the Mussulman schools. Enam lands estimated to yield rupees 1,109 per annum are appropriated to the support of 20 teachers of Theology, Law and Astronomy, and the present possessors perform the duties; other lands yielding rupees 384 per annum were formerly devoted to the same object, but were sequestered before the acquisition of the country by the British Government and the produce of them has since been included in the revenues of government. Tanjore: Of the schools in this district 44 are free schools. The rest are supported by payments from the scholars at the rate of 4 D fanams monthly for each—19 of the free schools belong to the Missions and it is believed that there are more not included in the Report. In 21 the masters are paid by the Rajah and in 1 by the Trevalore Pagoda, in the remaining 23 the masters teach gra- tuitously. There are none individually endowed by the Circar, but for the general support of the Mission at Tanjore—there is a Survamaunium of one village the annual value of which is 246

estimated at 1,100 rupees. The scholars are usually kept at school about 5 years. Of the colleges in number 109 there are 99 in which instruction is given free of charge, of these 71 are supported by the Rajah in the town of Tanjore and villages belonging to his Highness; in 16 the masters teach gratuitously, 1 only is endowed with a maunium, 7 are supported by a Pagoda, 3 by private donations and 1 by village contribution. In the remaining 10 colleges the masters are paid by their scholars. These colleges are for Bramins only. The Hindoo Sciences are taught in them. The population of those villages only in which there are schools is shown in this statement, not the general population of the district. Trichinopoly: There are no schools or colleges in this district for the support of which any public funds are appropriated and no institution for teaching Astronomy, Theology or any other Sciences. In the talook of Jyalore alone there are 7 schools which were formerly endowed by the Native Government with between 46 and 47 Cawnies of land for the maintenance of the teachers. The scholars generally continue at school from the age of 7 to 15. The average yearly expense of education is about 7 pagodas. Madura: It does not appear that any mauniam lands in this district are assigned for the support of schools. The teachers are paid by the poorer class of people from ½ fanam to 1 fanam for each scholar monthly and from 2 to 3 and 5 fanams by those in better circumstances—a teacher receives in this manner from 30 to 60 Cully fanams or from 2 to 3¾ pagodas a month in large villages and from 10 to 30 fanams in small villages. Scholars usually enter school at the age of 5 and leave it at from 12 to 15. There are no colleges in this district. In Agraharam villages a small portion of maunium land is usually allotted to those Bramins who study the Vedas and they gratuitously instruct such pupils as come to them. Tinnevelly: There appear to be no colleges in Tinnevelly. Coimbatore: The schools in this district appear to be supported entirely by the people who send their children to them for instruction. 247

The annual payment for each scholar varies from 14 rupees to 3 rupees per annum, according to the circumstances of the parents. The masters besides their regular stipends occasionally receive presents from the parents of their pupils; they have also small fees on particular occasions. The earliest age at which boys attend school is 5 years; they continue there until they are 13 or 14. Those who study Theology, Law, etc., enter the colleges at about 15 and continue to frequent them until they have attained a competent knowledge of the Sciences or until they obtain employment, a statement is given of mauniums, etc., granted in former times for the support of colleges, but now resumed to the value of Rs. 2,208-7-. Canara: No statement. Malabar: In Malabar there is only one regular college for instruction in the Sciences, but these are taught privately. The private teachers are not paid a fixed stipend but presents are made to them by their pupils when their education is completed. The school masters receive monthly from each scholar from ¼ rupee to 4 rupees independent of some remuneration when the scholar leaves school. The only college which exists in this district was established and is now supported by the Zamorin Rajah who allows about 2,000 rupees annually for the maintenance of the pupils and 200 rupees to the Instructor; some land also appertains to it—a history of this college, furnished by the Zamorin Rajah is submitted. Seringapatam: It is stated that there are no traces on records of endowments in lands towards the support of colleges and schools on the island of Seringapatam, having been granted by any former government or private individual. The teachers in the schools are supported by their scholars. The average monthly charge for each scholar is 5 annas and the average annual income of the masters from this source is about 57 rupees. Madras: In this statement two descriptions of schools are included, native schools for the education of Hindoo and Mussulman children respectively, and charity schools in which the scholars 248

are of various religions and castes indifferently. The children in the native schools are generally sent to them at the age of 5 years, the term of their continuance there depends upon circumstances, but it is stated that they generally acquire a competent knowledge of the various branches of learning taught to them before they attain their thirteenth year. The Collector states that there are no schools endowed by the public, excepting the charity schools. The payments to a teacher seldom exceed 12 pagodas per annum for each scholar. The Sciences are in some instances taught gratuitously to the children of the poorer class of Bramins and sometimes an allowance is made to the teachers. It will be observed that the estimate of the population of Madras in this statement is greatly too high, and there is reason to suppose that the proportion receiving instruction and the number of schools are stated too low. 249

XXX MINUTE OF SIR THOMAS MUNRO, MARCH 10, 1826 (Fort St. George, Revenue Consultations) 10 March 1826

1. The Board of Revenue were directed by government, on the 2nd July 1822, to ascertain the number of schools and the state of education among the natives in the provinces, and with their letter of the 21st February last, they transmitted the reports on this subject which they had received from the several Collectors. From these reports it appears that the number of schools, and of what are called colleges, in the territories under this presidency, amount to 12,498, and the population to 12,850,941; so that there is one school to every 1,000 of the population; but as only a very few females are taught in schools, we may reckon one school to every 500 of the population.
2. It is remarked by the Board of Revenue, that of a population of 12½ millions, there are only 188,000, or 1 in 67 receiving education. This is true of the whole population, but not as regards the male part of it, of which the proportion educated is much greater than is here estimated: for if we take the whole population as stated in the report at 12,850,000, and deduct one half for females, the remaining male population will be 6,425,000; and if we reckon the male population between the ages of five and ten years, which is the period which boys in general remain at school, at one-ninth, it will give 713,000, which is the number of boys that would be at school if all the males above ten years of age were educated; but the number actually attending the schools is only 184,110, or little more than one-fourth of that number. I have taken the interval between five and ten years of age as the term of education, because, though many boys continue at school till twelve or fourteen, many leave it under ten. I am, however, inclined to estimate the portion of the male population who receive school education to be nearer to one-third than one-fourth of the whole, because we have no returns from the provinces of the numbers taught at home. In Madras that number taught at home is 26,963, or about five times greater than that taught in the schools. There is probably some error in this number, and though the number privately taught in the provinces does certainly not approach this rate, it is no doubt considerable, because the practice of boys being taught at home by their relations or private teachers is not 250

infrequent in any part of the country. The proportion educated is very different in different classes; in some it is nearly the whole; in others it is hardly one-tenth. 3. The state of education here exhibited, low as it is compared with that of our own country, is higher than it was in most European countries at no very distant period. It has, no doubt been better in earlier times; but for the last century it does not appear to have undergone any other change than what arose from the number of schools diminishing in one place and increasing in another, in consequence of the shifting of the population, from war and other causes. The great number of schools has been supposed to contribute to the keeping of education in a low state, because it does not give a sufficient number of scholars to secure the service of able teachers. The monthly rate paid by each scholar is from four to six or eight annas. Teachers in general do not earn more than six or seven rupees monthly, which is not an allowance sufficient to induce men properly qualified to follow the profession. It may also be said that the general ignorance of the teachers themselves is one cause why none of them draw together a large body of scholars; but the main causes of the low state of education are the little encouragement which it receives, from there being but little demand for it, and the poverty of the people. 4. These difficulties may be gradually surmounted; the hindrance which is given to education by the poverty of the people may in a great degree be removed by the endowment of schools throughout the country by government, and the want of encouragement will be remedied by good education being rendered more easy and general, and by the preference which will naturally be given to well-educated men in all public offices. No progress, however, can be made without a body of better instructed teachers than we have at present; but such a body cannot be had without an income sufficient to afford a comfortable livelihood to each individual belonging to it; a moderate allowance should therefore be secured to them by government, sufficient to place them above want; the rest should be derived from their own industry. If they are superior both in knowledge and diligence to the common village school masters, scholars will flock to them and augment their income. 5. What is first wanted, therefore, is a school for educating teachers, as proposed by the committee of the Madras School- Book Society, in the letter of the 25th October 1824, which accompanied their second report. I think that they should be authorised to draw 700 rupees monthly from the treasury for 251

the purposes which they have stated; namely, for the payment of the interest of money employed in building, and the salaries of teachers, 500; and for the expenses of the press, 200. I would next propose that government should establish, in each Collectorate, two principal schools, one for Hindoos and the other for Mahomedans; and that hereafter, as teachers can be found the Hindoo schools might be augmented so as to give one to each tehsildary, or about 15 to each Collectorate. We ought to extend to our Mahomedan the same advantages of education as to our Hindoo subjects, and perhaps even in a greater degree, because a greater proportion of them belong to the middle and higher classes. But as their number is not more than one- twentieth of that of the Hindoos, it will not be necessary to give more than one Mahomedan school to each Collectorate, except in Arcot, and a few other Collectorates, where the Mahomedan population is considerably above the usual standard. 6. We have 20 Collectorates; the number of tehsildaries is liable to change: but it will be sufficient for the present purpose to estimate them at 15 on an average to each Collectorate, or 300 in all. This would, according to the plan proposed give about 40 collectorate and 300 tehsildary schools. The monthly salaries of the teachers of the collectorate schools might, on an average, be 15 rupees to each, and those of the tehsildary nine rupees each. These allowances may appear small, but the tehsiladry school master who receives nine rupees monthly from government, will get at least as much more from his scholars, and, considering all circumstances, his situation will probably be better than that of a parish school master in Scotland. 7. The total expense of the schools will be as follows: Madras School-Book Society per month Rs. 700 Collectorate Schools, Mahomedan, 20 at 15 rupees Rs. 300 Collectorate Schools, Hindoo, 20 at 15 rupees Rs. 300 Tehsildary Schools, 300 at 9 rupees Rs. 2,700 Per month Rs. 4,000 Per annum Rs.48,000 This expense will be incurred only be degrees, because it will be long before a sufficient number of qualified teachers can be obtained. The charges for the Madras School-Book Society 252