प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

116 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. colony was surrounded by an encircling wall with a door in the southern side.¹ Boarding and Lodging Arrangement: Monk- students were lodged in monasteries specially built for the purpose. Recent excavations have so far revealed the existence of thirteen such monasteries, and a glance at the topography shows that some more must have existed. Monasteries were at least two storeys in height and had both single-seated and double-seated rooms in them. Each room had one stone cot for each occupant and was also provided with nitches for lamp, books, etc. In one corner of the court-yard of each monastery, a well has been unearthed, showing that the problem of water supply was not overlooked. Rooms were assigned to the monk-students according to their seniority and redistribution took place every year. Hearths of huge dimensions have been discovered in each monastery, showing that the messing arrangements were common. The University had received 200 rich villages as endowment² and so could offer free boarding and clothing to its students. The usual practice in Buddhist monasteries was to offer these facilities to lay students, only if they agreed to perform some menial service.³ It is however possible that Nālandā may have offered free lodging and boarding to its

1. Beal, The Life of Hiuen Tsang (by Shaman Hwui) pp. 109- 114; Watters, II, pp. 164-171 and Itsing, pp. 30, 65, 86, and 154 are the main sources of information about Nālandā.
2. This is the number given by I-tsing, who had stayed at Nālandā for 10 years. Yuan-Chwang's biographer mentions only 100 villages in this connection. More villages may have been received in the interval between the two writers.
3. I-tsing, p. 106. In medieval Christian monasteries, the practice was to offer free tuition to all those who intended to join the Order; the laity was expected to pay small voluntary fee for the education of its children. Graves, A History, p. 81.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 117 lay students also,—who were usually Hindus,—in view of its having received so many endowments from Hindu patrons. The Number of Scholars : When I-tsing was living at Nālandā (c. 675 A.D.), there were more than 3,000 monks residing in the establishment (p. 154). The biographer of Yuan Chwang states that in the second quarter of the seventh century the number of the residents of Nālandā would always reach 10,000 (p. 112). The biographer had never been to India and his information therefore was second hand. His figure seems to be a little exaggerated since it is given in round numbers, and since Yuan Chwang himself simply observes that there were some thousand brethren residing at the place (II p. 165). It would, however, seem certain that the actual number of the monks staying at Nālandā must have been at least about 5,000 towards the middle of the 7th century A. D. Both a Monastery and a University : Nālandā, however, was not a mere monastery ; it had obtained so wide a fame primarily because it was a very famous centre of learning. Yuan Chwang says, 'In the establishment were some thousand brethren, all men of great learning and ability, several hundreds being highly esteemed and famous ; the brethren were very strict in observing the precepts and regulations of their order ; learning and discussing they found the day too short, day and night they admonished each other, juniors and seniors mutually helping to perfection. Hence foreign students came to the establishment to put an end to their doubts and then became celebrated, and those who stole the name (of Nālandā) were all treated with respect wherever they went' (II, p. 165). The names of deep scholars and skilful debators, who had distinguished themselves at

118 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. the University, used to be written in white on the lofty gate of the University for being known to every fresher and visitor (Itsing, p, 176). High Standard of Piety and Scholarship: The head abbots of Nālandā used to be as much celebrated for piety as for scholarship. Amongst them were ‘Dharmapāla and Chandrapāla, who gave a fragrance to the Buddha’s teachings, Guṇamati and Sthiramati of excellent reputation among contemporaries, Prabhāmitra of clear argument, Jinamitra of elevated conversation, Jinamitra of model character and perspicacious intellect and Śīlabhadra whose perfect excellence was buried in obscurity’¹ These scholars were not, however, content merely to teach and expound ; they were authors of several treatises, widely studied and highly valued by their contemporaries. The above seven scholars flourished in the first half of the 7th century ; the total number of high class scholars produced at Nālandā during its history of about 700 years must have been very great. At the time of Yuan Chwang’s visit the average scholarship of the establishment also was very high. Out of its 5,000 (or 10,000) monks, there were a thousand who could explain thirty collections of Sūtras, and perhaps ten who could explain fifty.² Rush for Admission from India and Abroad: There was a great rush for admission to the Nālandā University. Students from all parts of India and also from distant foreign countries were anxious to get the benefit of its instructions. Fa Hsien, Yuan Chwang and I-tsing were not the only Chinese scholars that were attracted to Nālandā by its fame

1. Watters, II p. 165,
2. Life, p. 112.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 119 as a centre of learning. During the short interval of thirty years between the visits of Yuan Chwang and I-tsing, Thon-mi, Hiuen Chiu, Taou-hi, Hwui-nieh, Āryavarman, Buddhadharma, Taou-sing, Tang and Hwui Lu, hailing from distant countries like China, Korea, Tibet and Tokhara had visited Nālandā and spent considerable time there in studying and copying manuscripts.¹ The standard of admission was naturally high; 'of those from abroad, who wished to enter the schools of discussion, the majority, beaten by the difficulties of the problems, withdrew; and those who were deeply versed in old and modern learning were admitted, only two or three out of ten succeeding²'. Library Facilities: The Nālandā authorities had realised that a monastery without a library was like a castle without an armoury. The University was maintaining a splendid library to meet the needs of the hundreds of teachers and thousands of students that were engaged in the study of different sciences. One of the reasons why Chinese scholars used to spend months together at Nālandā was to get true copies of the sacred texts and other works of Buddhism. I-tsing got copied at Nālandā 400 Sanskrit works amounting to 5,00,000 verses. Significantly enough the library quarter was known as Dharma-gañja 'Mart of Religion.' It was located in three splendid buildings appropriately called Ratna-sāgara, Ratnodadhi and Ratnarañjaka.⁴ Lecturing Arrangement; Strength of Classes: In the monk population of about 5,000 (perhaps 10,000) 1 Life, Introduction, pp. XXVII-XXXVI 2. Watters, II, p. 165 3. I-tsing, p. 1 4. Vidyabhushana, History of Indian Logic, p. 516

120 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. a thousand could explain, as we have seen already, twenty collections, of Sūtras. This means that there were about a thousand competent teachers to look after the education of about 4,000, but in no case, more than 9,000 monk students. On the average therefore each teacher was in charge of about not more than nine students. Personal attention was thus possible to each student and the teaching therefore must have been very efficient. The college had eight big halls and 300 smaller apartments and every day the authorities used to arrange for about a hundred lectures. Learned monk teachers were held in high veneration and were provided with sedan chairs. They were experts in the art of teaching and expounding; I-tsing gratefully observes, 'I have been very glad that I have had an opportunity of aquiring knowledge personally from them, which I should otherwise have never possessed.' Curriculum : The curriculum at Nālandā was very comprehensive and catholic. The establishment belonged to the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism, but the works of the rival school, the Hīnayāna one, were also taught. This necessitated a study of Pali language, in which most of the Hīnayāna works were composed. Works of the famous Mahāyāna scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu, Asaṅga and Dharmakīrti must have been specially studied. But it is not to be supposed that the curriculum of the University was a sectarian one in the sense that it neglected Hindu subjects. In the first place it must be noted that subjects like grammar, logic and literature were common to both the Hindus and the Buddhists. Secondly, we have to remember that Bauddha and Hindu religion and philosophy had become so intricately interconnected with each other that to study

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 121 the one without the other had become practically impossible not only for the ambitious controversialist but also for the sincere lover of truth. Buddhists themselves inform us that the three Vedas, Vedānta and Sāṁkhya philosophy were taught at the University along with ‘miscellaneous works’¹. The latter expression probably included the study of subjects like Dharmaśāstra (sacred law), Purāṇas, astronomy, astrology etc., which were very important for the lay Hindu and Buddhist students. The study of medicine chikitsāśāstra) which is referred to in the sacred canon, was also prosecuted at the place. Administration: At the head of the general administration was the abbot-principal, who used to be assisted by two councils, one academic and the other administrative. How these bodies used to function has been already described in the last chapter. To arrange for the free boarding and lodging of so vast a number of students as 5,000 (or perhaps 10,000) was a very costly affair ; the University was enabled to do it because different kings had assigned the revenues of a large number of villages for the upkeep of the establishment. The number of these villages was 200 during I-tsing’s stay at the University (c. 675-685 A.D.). Sealings of a number of these villages, obviously attached to letters sent by them to the University administration, have been found in excavations. Later History ; A Foreign Endowment : Nālandā continued to be a famous centre of learning down to the 12th century A. D. An 8th century inscription describes how it was then excelling all other towns and cities on account of its scholars who were

1. Life, p. 112.
2. Mahāvagga, Chap. VI.

122 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch: well-versed in sacred texts and philosophy.¹ In the 9th century the University continued to enjoy inter- national reputation ; Balaputradeva, a king of Java and Sumatra, being attracted by its fame, built a monastery there and induced his friend and ally, King Devapāla of Bengal, to grant five villages for its upkeep.² Part of this endowment was reserved for the purpose of copying books for the University library (Dharmaratnasya lekhānārtham). Work in Tibet : From the 8th century onwards, the scholars at Nālandā began to play an active part in the propagation of Buddhist religion and culture in Tibet. Arrangements therefore must have been made for teaching Tibetan at the institution. Chandra- gomin, a Nālandā monk who flourished at the beginning of the 8th century A.D., was the pioneer in the field. Scores of his works were translated into Tibetan ; many scholars were in fact engaged in translation work. Sāntarakshita, another Nālandā monk and scholar, was invited to Tibet by its king Khri-sron-deu-tsan in 749 A.D. for the purpose of preaching Buddhism. He was given a royal reception and the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet was built under his instructions. He became its chief abbot and vigorously helped the spread of Buddhism till his death in 762 A.D. He received very valuable coopera-

1. E. I., XX. p. 43.
2. E. I., XVII, p. 310, Cf. :— नालंदागुणवृन्दलुब्धमनसा भक्त्या च शौद्धोदनेः । नानासद्गुणभिक्षुसंघवसतिस्तस्यां विहारः कृतः ॥ ..................................................... सुवर्णद्वीपाधिपमहाराजश्रीबलपुत्रदेवेन वयं विज्ञापिताः । यथा मया श्रीनालंदायां विहारः कृतः ।................ ॥

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 123 tion in this work from Padmasambhava, a Kashmirian monk educated at Nālandā¹. Intellectual and literary activity of Nālandā must have continued in subsequent centuries also, for several manuscripts have been preserved to this time, which were copied at Nālandā during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries A.D. Supersession by Vikramasila University : Tārā- nāth informs us that the professors of Vikramaśīlā were often appointed to watch over the affairs of Nālandā by the Pāla rulers². From the 11th century onwards the new University of Vikramaśīlā began to receive a greater share of the royal patronage ; this circumstance may have led to the decline of Nālandā during the 11th and 12th centuries. Evidence from the Tibetan sources shows that by this time Tantricism had aquired a hold over the Buddhist mind and it may have perhaps affected the progress of serious studies. We have, however, no definite evidence on the point. The Destruction of the University : The ruin of the establishment was brought about by the Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khilji towards the end of the 12th century. The buildings were burnt or destroyed and the whole of the monk population was put to the sword. The priceless library of the university was also wantonly committed to flames. Thus perished this famous university at the hands of fanatic invaders who did not know its value. VALABHI³ A Famous Centre of Learning : Valabhi, situated

1. Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities, pp. 116-81.
2. Ibid, p. 86.
3. See Altekar, A History of Important Towns and Cities in Gujarat and Kathiawar, pp. 89-40 for the history of this place.

124      EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA      [Ch. near modern Wala in Kathiawar, was the capital of an important kingdom and a port of international trade with numerous warehouses full of rarest merchandise. During the 7th century, however, it was more famous as a seat of learning. I-tsing informs us that its fame rivalled with that of Nālandā in eastern India;¹ it is however a pity that he should not have given us any details about its literary and educational activity. There were about a hundred Buddhist monasteries at the place in c. 640 A.D.²; and they accommodated six thousand monk-students. The famous Buddhist scholars, Sthiramati and Guṇamati, were the leading scholars of the University at the middle of the 7th century A.D.³ Like Nālandā, Valabhi also was not an exclusively Buddhist or monastic centre of learning. Even Brahmanas from the distant Gangetic plain used to send their sons to that place for higher education⁴. Graduates at Valabhi used to be appointed to posts in the executive line (I-tsing, p. 177); this would have been impossible if secular subjects like law, economics, accountancy and literature had not been cultivated at the place. The University was famous for its catholicity and intellectual freedom.

1. P. 177.
2. Watters, II p. 246.
3. A copper plate grant given in 580 A.D. to a monastery founded by Sthiramati has been found ; I.A., VI, p. 11.
4. अन्तर्वेद्यामभूत्पूर्वं वसुदत्त इहि द्विजः । विष्णुदत्ताभिधानश्च पुत्रस्तस्योपपद्यत ॥ स विष्णुदत्तो वयसा पूर्णषोडशवत्सरः । गंतुं प्रवृत्ते विद्याप्राप्तये वलभीपुरम् ॥   K. S. S. Chap.                      XXXII, 42-43.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 125 We are told that the scholars from all parts of India used to assemble at Valabhi and stay there for at least two or three years to discuss ‘possible and impossible doctrines.’ They used to become famous for their wisdom when they were assured of the correctness of their opinions by the doctors at Valabhi. The names of the famous scholars of the University were written in white on its lofty gates. (Ibid., pp. 176-7). Financial support: Valabhi was a rich city; it had a hundred citizens ‘whose wealth amounted to a million’. The University used to receive considerable support from these merchant princes. The Maitraka kings who were ruling there during c. 480 to 775 A. D., were also great patrons of learning; they used to give direct grants for the purpose of meeting the general expenses of the University as also for strengthening its library¹. Scholars who completed their educational course at the University used to receive either appointments in government service or some financial help to enable them to start their life². This continued to be the case till c. 775 A. D. when the reigning dynasty succumbed to an Arab attack, which resulted in the destruction of the city and of the University. VIKRAMŚĪLĀ³ An International University : Vikramaśilā monas-

1. सद्धर्मस्य पुस्तकोपचयार्थम् । I. A., VII., p. 67 ff.
2. I-tsing, p. 177.
3. Tibetan sources inform us that this monastery was situated in Bihar on a hill on the right bank of the Ganges. Mr. De's identification of Vikramasīlā with Patharaghata hill, 24 miles to the east of Bhagalpur, seems to be correct. The place is full of ancient and extensive ruins, and may yield a rich reward to the excavator. J. A. S. B., N. S., V, p. 7.

126 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. tery, founded by king Dharmapāla in the 8th century, was a famous centre of international learning for more than four centuries. King Dharmapāla (c. 775- 800 A. D.) was its founder; he built temples and monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them. He also erected several halls for the lecturing work. His successors continued to patronise the University down to the 13th century.¹ The monks of the establishment were usually distinguished scholars and the fame of the monastery soon spread beyond the Himalayas. There was continuous intercourse going on between Tibet and Vikramaśīlā for four centuries. A special guest house was maintained for the use of Tibetan scholars coming to learn at the feet of Indian Pandits.² One cannot help admiring the continuous tradition of high scholarship that was maintained at Vikramaśīlā throughout its history. Tibetan sources inform us that Buddha, Jñānapāda, Vairochana, Rakshita, Jetārī Ratnākara-Śānti, Jñāna-śrī-mitra, Ratnavajra, Abhayankaragupta, Tathāgata-rakshita and a host of other Vikramaśīlā scholars wrote numerous books in Sanskrit and translated scores of them in Tibetan. The most distinguished in this galaxy of Vikramaśīlā scholars was undoubtedly Dīpaṅkara Śrī-Jñāna, more commonly known as Upādhyāya Atīśa, who flourished in the 11th century A.D. He went to Tibet at the invitation of its king Chan Chūb and played an important part in the reformation of the Buddhism of that country. As many as 200 books, both original and in translation, have been attributed to him by the Tibetan tradition.³

1. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 30 ff.
2. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow, p. 58.
3. Bose, Indian Teachers, pp. 32-105.

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 127 Strength of the University : When there was such a distinguished galaxy of scholars at Vikramaśīlā, it is but natural that the numerical strength of the establishment should have enormously increased by the number of scholars attracted to the establishment. In the 12th century there were 3,000 monk scholars residing at the place.¹ The college possessed a rich and extensive library, which excited admiration even of its Muslim destroyers. General Administration : The administrative management of the Vikramaśīlā establishment was entrusted by the Pāla rulers to a board of six monks presided over by the chief abbot. Different members of the board were assigned different administrative duties like the ordination of the novices, supply and supervision of servants, distribution of food and fuel, assignment of monastic work, etc. Monk professors led a simple life, the cost of maintaining one of them being equal to the cost of supporting four ordinary monks.² Academic administration : Academic adminis- tration was vested in a council of six dvārapaṇḍitas presided over by the chief abbot. The function of the Dvārapaṇḍita was to test the scholarship of those seeking admission to the college. During the reign of king Kanaka (?), the following were the Dvāra- paṇḍitas of the establishment :— Eastern Gate : Āchārya Ratnākara-śānti Western „ : Vāgīśvara-kīrti of Benares Northern „ : Naropa Southern „ : Prajnākara-mati First Central Gate : Ratna-vajra of Kashmir

1. Ibid, p. 84.
2. Ibid, p. 85.

128 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Second Central Gate : Jñān-śrī-mitra of Gauda¹ Courses of Study and degrees : Grammar, logic, metaphysics, Tantras and ritualism were the main subjects specialised at the institution. The curriculum was thus not so wide or catholic as that at Nālandā, outlined above. Unfortunately we have no informa- tion of the duration or the gradation of the course at Vikramaśīlā, but there is every probability that it was more systematically organised than was the case at any other centre of ancient Indian education. For, unlike at any other college, we find diplomas and titles being given to the Vikramaśīlā students at the end of their course by the reigning kings of Bengal. Tibetan authorities inform us that Jetāri and Ratnavajra had received degrees at the hands of kings Mahīpāla and Kanaka respectively.² The memory of the distinguished alumni of the place was kept ever green in the mind of the congregation by their pictures being put on the walls of the college halls This honour is known to have been shown to Nāgārjuna and Atīśa. Destruction of the University : In 1203, the Vikramaśīlā monastery was destroyed by the Mahomadens under Bakhtyar Khilji, who seem to have mistaken it for a fort. At that time Śākya- śrī-bhadra was at the helm of the monastic affairs. The account of the destruction of the monastery has been preserved by the author of Tabākāt-i-nāsiri. We read, ‘The greater number of the inhabitants of the place were Brahmanas (i. e. Buddhist Bhikshus) and the whole of these Brahmanas had their heads shaven, and they were all slain. There were a great number of books on the religion of the Hindus there,

1. Vidyabhushana, History of Indian Logic, p. 520.
2. Bose, Indian Teachers, p, 47, p. 61

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 129 and when all these books came under the observation of the Mussalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus that they might give them information respecting the import of these books; but the whole of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was found that the whole fortress and city was a college'.¹ Śākya-śrī-bhadra and a few others, who escaped the general slaughter, fled to Tibet. Such was the tragic end of this famous college. OTHER BUDDHIST CENTRES OF LEARNING Other Monasteries as Centres of Learning : From stray and casual references in the Life and Travells of Yuan Chwang, we learn that (1) Jayendra monastery near the capital of Kashmir, (2 & 3) Chinapati and Jallandar monasteries in the Punjab, (4) Matipur monastery in Bijnor district, U. P., (5) Bhadra monastery near Kanauj, (6) a monastery in Hiraṇya (?) country, and (7) and another at Amraoti in Andhra country were notable centres of learning in the 7th century.² At most of these monasteries Yuan Chwang stayed for several months in order to study Buddhist works and get their copies. Their presiding abbots were distinguished authors, widely known in the country. At the time of Yuan Chwang's visit in the 7th century we must remember that Buddhism was on the decline in the country, and yet so many monasteries were flourishing centres of Buddhist learning. Budhism continued to be strong in Bihar and Bengal down to the 12th century A. D. and we find monasteries in that province like those at Odantapuri and Jagadalla Vihar (founded by king

1. Raverty's translation of Tabākāt-i-Nāsiri, Vol. I, p. 552; (1881).
2. See Life, pp. 69-70, 77, 81, 84, 127 and 137 respectively. 9

130 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Rāmapāla at his capital Rāmāvtī) were famous centres of learning, spreading the holy knowledge both in India and abroad. We would not be wrong if we assume that during the days of Buddhist ascendancy, at least ten per cent of the well-endowed monasteries were respectable centres of learning and education, at least of the status of modern degree colleges. The contribution of Buddhism to the cause of learning and education was thus very great. HINDU TEMPLE COLLEGES. Introduction : We have seen already how edu- cational activity became a part of the daily monastic life fairly early in the history of Buddhism. It is, however, only from the 10th century that we get evidence of Hindu temples becoming centres of higher education. It is however quite possible that temples began to undertake educational work much earlier, though we have yet no evidence on the point. The causes that led to this new development have been indicated already at pp. 72-3. SALOTGI TEMPLE COLLEGE. A Famous and Free College : The village of Salotgi in Bijapur District of the Bombay Presidency was a famous centre, probably of Vedic learning, in the 10th and 11th centuries A. D. The Sanskrit college that flourished at this place must have existed for a long time, for it eventually transformed the original name of the place, Pāviṭṭage, into Sālotgi, which is an abbreviated and Prakritised compound of Śālā and Pāviṭṭage. The college was located in a spacious hall, attached to the temple of Trayī-Purusha, which was built by Nārāyaṇa, a minister of the Rāshtrakūṭa emperor Kṛishṇa III. Owing to its far spread fame for efficiency, the college could attract students from

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 131 different parts of the country. The strength of the college is not known, but it seems that 27 houses were necessary for lodging the students. An endowment of 12 Nivartanas (probably equal to 60 acres) of land was made for meeting the lighting charges of the boarding houses.¹ The students were offered free boarding, an endowment of 500 Nivartanas having been received for that purpose. It would appear that at least 200 students were offered free boarding, lodging and education at this institution. The salary of the principal was provided for by another endowment of 50 Nivartanas. The inscription is silent about the salaries of the other teachers. Public Support : The inhabitants of the village were not slow to appreciate the benefits of the institution; they had agreed to offer to the college a donation of five rupees at every marriage, of two and half rupees at every Upanayana and of a rupee and quarter at every tonsure ceremony. Besides whenever

1. The relevant verses from the inscription are given below :— नारायणोऽभिधानेन नारायण इवापरः । प्रधानः कृष्णराजस्य मन्त्री सन्सन्धिविग्रहे ॥ तेनेयं कारिता शाला श्रीविशाला मनोरमा । अत्र विद्यार्थिनः संति नानाजनपदोद्भवाः । शालाविद्यार्थिसंघाय दत्तवान्भूमिमुत्तमाम् । मान्यां निवर्तनानां तु पंचभिश्च शतैर्मिताम् ॥ निवर्तनानि दीपार्थं मान्यानि द्वादशैव च । पंच पुष्पाणि देयानि विवाहे सति तज्जनैः । देयं तथोपनयने विवाहे यत्पुरोदितम् ॥ केनचित्कारणेनेह कर्तव्ये विप्रभोजने । भोजयेत्तु यथाशक्ति परिषदत्परिशज्जनम् ॥ EI V p. 60. I.,

132 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. a feast was given in the village, the host was expected to invite as many teachers and students as possible. A later inscription from the same place informs us that when the college hall built by the minister of Kṛishṇa III in 945 A. D. crumbled down in the next century, it was rebuilt by a local magnate. ENNĀYIRAM TEMPLE COLLEGE.¹ The Strength of the College; Subjects Taught : At the beginning of the 11th century A. D. there existed a famous and well organised college at Ennāyiram in South Arcott district, which was an educational institution of the modern type, with a staff of sixteen teachers, engaged in teaching a pre- determined curriculum. The local village community had endowed the college with 300 acres of landed property, thus enabling its authorities to offer free tuition, boarding and lodging to 340 students. The admission of students was governed by the principle of the reservation of a fixed number of seats for different subjects. Thus 75 seats were reserved for the Ṛigveda and Black Yajurveda each, 40 seats for the Sāmaveda, 20 for the White Yajurveda, 10 for the Atharvaveda, Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra and Vedānta each, 25 for grammar, 35 for Mīmānsā and 40 for Rūpāvatāra (?). The institution was thus predominently a Vedic college. Number of Teachers : For the Ṛigveda and Black Yajurveda, there were three teachers each, for the Mīmānsā two, and for the rest of the subjects one each. There were 16 teachers for 340 students, and so the average number of students per teacher was about 22. Students therefore must have received

1. S. I. E. R. for 1918, p. 145, Inscription No. 333 for 1917

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 133 personal attention and instructions. Big classes like those existing in modern colleges were unknown. Maintenance Allowance to Students : The college supplied free boarding to students, and we have interesting information about the rations allowed per head. Each Vedic student received about one seer of rice per day and this quantity was sufficient for the daily meals. He also received annually an allowances of about one eighth tola of gold, which was probably intended to cover the clothing expenses. The allowance for the students of grammar and philosophy was about 66 per cent higher; the reason for this preferential treatment is not clear. The Salaries of Teachers : The normal allowance for the teachers of the college was about 16 seers of rice every day. The cost of an ordinary meal was about half a seer of rice ; an ordinary Sanskrit teacher was thus getting as his salary about three times the amount necessary for the food expenses of a family of five. He was thus receiving a salary just sufficient for his normal family responsibilities. He was neither rolling in riches nor suffering from abject poverty. Philosophy (Vedānta) was apparently regarded as a difficult subject, for the salary of the teacher of the subject was 25 percent higher. TIRUMUKKUDAL TEMPLE COLLEGE.¹ General Organisation : During the 11th century, Venkatesh Perumal Temple at Tirumukkudal in Chingleput district was a very interesting institution, for it was running a college, a hostel and a hospital. The college was a smaller institution than the one

1. E. I., XXI, No. 220.

134 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. at Ennāyiram, for arrangement was here made for the free boarding and lodging of 60 students only. Out of the 60 seats in the hostel, 10 were reserved for the students of the Ṛigveda, 10 for those of the Yajurveda, 20 for those of grammar, 10 for those of the Pañcha-rātra system, 3 for those of Śaivāgama and 7 for Vānaprasthas and Sanyāsins. All the students in the hostel were provided with oil for bath every Saturday. Teachers’ Salaries : The teachers’ salaries in this institution were lower than those in the Ennāyiram college. Vedic teachers used to receive only about three seers of rice every day ; their salary was thus about one sixth the salary that was paid in the Ennāyiram college. Vedic teachers of this institution were apparently part-time teachers ; for their salary is seen to be practically the same as the wages of the servant appointed in the temple hospital for fetching medicinal herbs and preparing medicines. The grammar teacher was apparently a full time employee, for he received about eight seers of rice every day. His pay was thus half the pay of the teacher at Ennāyiram. In ancient as in modern times, salaries of teachers varied with the financial condition of educational institutions. TIRUVORRIYUR TEMPLE COLLEGE¹ A Grammar College in Memory of Panini : During the 13th century there was a big grammar college at Tiruvorriyur in Chingleput district. The college was located in a big hall adjoining the local Śiva temple. There was a tradition current in the locality, that God Śiva had appeared in this very

1. S. I. E. R. for 1912, No. 201 of 1912

V] EDUCATIONAL CENTRES AND INSTITUTIONS 135 temple before Pāṇini for fourteen continuous days in, order to teach him the first fourteen aphorisms ; the village community had therefore organised an efficient grammar college in the Śiva temple to commemorate the event. The college was a much bigger institution than the Ennāyiram college. In the latter place an endowment of 300 acres had enabled the organisers to arrange for the free food and education of 340 students. The Tiruvorriyur college had received an endowment of 400 acres; we may not be therefore far wrong in assuming that this grammar college must have had more than 450 students on its rolls. The number of teachers was probably about 15 to 20. This college went on performing its functions down to the 14th century ; for a record, about a century later than the previous one, mentions how certain additional taxes were assigned for the upkeep of the grammar college.¹ Details about the management of this college are not available. MALKAPURAM TEMPLE COLLEGE. A Temple, College, Hostel and Hospital combined: An inscription from Malkapuram, dated 1268 A. D.,² reveals the existence of an institution which was a temple, a college, a hostel and a hospital combined. There were eight teachers in the college, three for the Vedas and five for the secular subjcets consisting of grammar, literature, logic and Āgamas. There was one doctor in charge of the hospital. In the south Indian colleges we have seen so far, there used to be about 20 students on the average under the charge of each teacher. The Malkapuram college therefore had probably about 150 students. They were as usual offered free tuition, boarding, lodging and medicine.

1. Ibid, No. 110 of 1912
2. S. I. E. R., for 1917. pp. 122-24