प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

152 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that language even in their harems¹. Prakrits ceased to be used for public documents and even the Buddhists and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders of their religions and began to compose works in Sanskrit. The revival of Sanskrit during this period produced results more or less similar to those brought about in Europe by the discovery and study of the classics during the time of the Renaissance. All the attention of the educated classes was devoted to the cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of vernaculars through which alone the masses could be approached. This eventually tended to confine educa- tion only to higher classes. Preliminary Sanskrit Course : The study of the different branches of knowledge that were flourishing in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, astronomy and mathematics. He then used to select one of these subjects for specialisation and devote about ten years to its study. Popularity of Grammar and Astrology : Among the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology were very popular, as attested to both by Yuan

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, p. 50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 153 Chwang and Alberuni. The demand for experts in grammar was as keen during this age as the demand for the teachers trained in English is today. Every school for higher education had to engage several grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject. The age believed in astrology and astrologers were in great demand throughout the country for preparing and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future events. The royal courts also used to engage the services of several astrologers. The Course in Sanskrit Literature. The students of this subject were naturally required first to complete their course in grammar and kosha (vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some famous authors like Kālidāsa, Bhartṛihari or Bāṇa. Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics, and students were expected not only to understand the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good poems imitating their style. In order to get a general knowledge of the culture of the race, they were also required to study the epics, the Purāṇas and traditional stories. They were further trained to be good debators; the ability to defend one's own position in learned assemblies and the capacity to compose a good poem in a very short time were regarded as the most important criteria of good scholarship. The Courses in Smritis and Puranas : Almost as popular as the courses in grammar and astrology were the courses in Purāṇas and Smṛitis whose hold over the popular mind during this age was almost as great as that of the Vedic literature in the earlier periods. Popular Hindu religion had greatly changed its complexion during this period and its

154 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch theories and practices could be ascertained only from Smṛitis and Purāṇas, which therefore had to be mastered even by the village priest. The courses in these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special study of select Sūtras, Smṛitis and Purāṇas. More emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the works concerned than on committing them to memory. Usually the students of Smṛitis and Purāṇas took the help of a manuscript when expounding their contents ; there was no prejudice against utilising the art of writing for preserving them. Courses in Logic and Philosophy : The age we are reviewing was reverberating with controversies among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the followers of Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā and Vedānta were contending for supremacy. It was but natural that these controversies should have given an impetus to the study of metaphysics. After getting a preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the students of the subject used to select one of the systems of philosophy for specialisation and master its most advanced and difficult works. The study of philo- sophy presupposed a study of logic during this period ; so students of philosophy used to devote considerable time to the study of logic also. The young graduate in philosophy was however expected not only to expound and defend his own system but also to attack and refute those of his opponents. The course therefore included a comparative study of the contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philo- sophers like Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkarāchārya and

1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, pp. 49-50.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 155 Buddhist scholars like Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu used to master the systems of their opponents as well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided over by Divākarasena, a Brahmana convert to Buddhism, students of Hinduism, Buddhism and Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jainism studied together side by side under the same principal.¹ Such an arrangement naturally presupposes a comparative study of the rival systems leading to the broadening of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of the average student of the institution. Courses for Laymen in Buddhist Colleges : For reasons already explained at p. 72, Buddhist monastic colleges began to take up the education of the laymen also from about the beginning of the Christian era. The courses prescribed for them were not radically different from those obtaining under sister institutions working under the aegis of Hinduism. Students started with a study of Sanskrit grammar and literature, which lasted for seven or eight years. They were also given some grounding in Pāli ; as pious Buddhists, they had to master some passages from the Pāli canon. At about the age of 15 or 16, their higher education commenced Those who wanted to specialise in Sanskrit literature Dharmaśāstra, astrology-cum-astronomy, medicine or works on polity and administration used to follow practically the same course as was in vogue in the Hindu colleges of the period. Those however who wanted to specialise in logic or philosophy used to select works by Buddhist authors on these subject like Hetuvidyā, Abhidharmaśāstra, Nyāyānusāraśāstra etc. The followers of the Hīnayāna school used to

1. Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

156 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. specialise in Tripiṭakas and other early works of orthodox Buddism, whereas those of the Mahāyāna school used to study the works of their famous scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti. Besides mastering their own works on philosophy, the Buddhist scholars used to study Hindu works on metaphysics as well. Courses for Monks : The curriculum prescribed for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different. It did not include any special study of secular sciences like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned principally with theological subjects. For ten years after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor, who used to initiate him in the study of Pāli and Sanskrit. When these languages were properly mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the Tripiṭakas,) was started. When this was over, relatively recent works on Buddhist religion and philosophy were mastered. Hindu systems of religion, logic and philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet the Hindu opponent on his own ground. It is interesting to note that Yuan Chwang, who had under- taken the arduous and perilous journey to India primarily for studying Buddhist scriptures, spent two fifth the period of his stay in India in studying Sanskrit works on Hinduism. The education of the novice did not terminate with his admission to the Order as a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu Naishṭhika Brahmachārin. Selection of Text-books : We have no definite information about the text-books prescribed for the various courses in different institutions during different

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 157 centuries. These must have gone on changing in course of time when better and more up-to-date books written by competent authorities became available. The selection of text books was usually governed by considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of learning like Pāṭalīputra or Benares¹, and if it was found to be a work of merit by that body, it received its imprimateur, which helped its acceptance and spread in provincial towns. It should be however noted that no pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to an author by his book being prescribed in several institutions; for there was no press and copyright in ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text book in the schools of a province however increased the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come across writers adopting rather questionable means to get their books accepted. Ugrabhūti, the teacher of king Anaṅgapāla of the Punjab (c. 1010–c. 1020) is said to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs of dirhams (= about Rs. 60,000) among the Pandits of Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their reluctance to accept his new work on grammar called Śishya-hitā-vṛitti². Such cases however were probably few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school were those in vogue at the centre where the principal and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus, Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written by authors of their own persuasion in the case of a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.

1. Pāṇini is reported to have come all the way to Pāṭalīputra from Śalātura in N. W. F. P, in order to get his famous grammar approved by the synod at that famous capital. Śaṅkarāchārya came to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimateur of the Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.
2. Sachau, Alberuni, Vol. I, pp. 185-6.

158 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. METHOD OF TEACHING AND STUDY General Conditions of the Times : Before des- cribing and commenting upon the method of teaching and study current in ancient India, it is necessary that we should familiarise ourselves with the general conditions of the age. In the beginning the art of writing was unknown, and even when it was invented, it was not utilised for preserving and transmitting the Vedic literature, which for several centuries was the main topic of study. It was further held as imperatively necessary that the canonical literature should be memorised in the most meticulous way ; there should be no possibility of the mistake even of a single accent. The service of the art of writing was no doubt utilised for preserving and teaching non-Vedic literature, but owing to the absence of paper and printing, books could be within the reach of the rich only. Being written on birch leaves, they were fragile as well as costly. The average student could therefore not have his own copy of the text-book ;¹ even the desire to possess one was regarded as a symptom of indolence.² Under such circum- stances, extensive use of a library was altogether impracticable, nor could the help of visual instruction through the help of charts and pictures be possible. Oral instruction was the only available method of teaching and it was the cheapest and the most accurate.

1. गीती शीघ्री शिरःकंपी तथा लिखितपाठकः । अनर्थज्ञोऽल्पकण्ठश्च षडेते पाठकाधमाः ॥ Pāṇinīya-śikshā, 32.
2. द्यूतं पुस्तकशुश्रूषा नाटकासक्तिरेव च । स्त्रियस्तन्द्री च निद्रा च विद्याविघ्नकराणि षट् ॥ Nārada in S. C. S. p. 52.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 159 Method of Teaching in the Vedic Schools : Education therefore was for a long time imparted through the oral lesson, without the medium of a book. This method persisted in the Vedic schools down to recent times. The teacher used to pronounce only two words of the Vedic stanza at a time, which the student was asked to recite with exact intonation and accent. The number of words was reduced to one, if the expression happened to be a compound one.¹ If the student had any difficulty in the matter, it was explained to him. When a whole verse was thus taught to one student, he was dis- missed and the same process was repeated with the next one. Necessarily every student used to receive individual attention under this system. The method of teaching was direct and personal and not even a text-book intervened between the teacher and the student. Method of Teaching in non-Vedic Schools : The above method of teaching was extensively followed in other branches of learning also, no doubt with suitable modifications, when it was deemed necessary that certain texts should be memorised by the student. Small portions of the text were recited and explained by the teacher to the students; when they had understood them, each one was required to commit them to memory. It was in this way that students used to learn important books like the grammar of Pāṇini, the dictionary of Amara, the law-book of Manu or the work on poetics by Mammaṭa, which had to be committed to memory. Books being both costly and fragile, there was no other efficient alternative method of study, if it was desired that

1. Ṛik-prātiśākhya, Paṭala, XV.

160 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.. students should aquire a mastery in their subjects, which should stand them in good stead throughout their lives. Learning in ancient times had to be at the tip of the tongue ; a scholar asking for time to consult his notes or books could carry no prestige.¹ The highest ambition of an author of even the 12th century A. D. was, not that his work may adorn the shelves of the libraries of the learned, but that it may shine as an ornament on their neck, i. e. it should be memorised by them.² Importance of Recitation and Recapitulation : Recitation and recapitulation therefore formed an important part in the daily routine of the student life. The home-work, which the student did in his spare time, did not consist of written exercises ; it merely amounted to the recitation and recapitulation of lessons learnt already. Every day students were required to spend a part of their time in the school in jointly reciting a portion of the work they had committed to memory. As a result of this training, the memory of the average student in ancient India was very highly developed ; he could perform feats of memor- ising which now we may regard as impossible. I-tsing rather obscurely refers to certain interesting aids to memory owing to which, after the practice of ten or fifteen days, the student felt ‘his thoughts rising like a fountain and could commit to memory whatever he had but once heard’. ‘This is far from a myth,’ १. पुस्तकस्था तु या विद्या परहस्तगतं धनम् । कार्यकाले समुत्पन्ने न सा बिद्या न तद्धनम् ॥ S. R. B., p. 168 v. 413. २. तेन प्रीत्या विरचितमिदं काव्यमव्याजकान्तं । कर्णाटेन्दोर्जगति विदुषां कण्ठभूषात्वमेयात् ॥ Vikramānkadevacharit, XVIII 102.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 161 says the Chinese traveller, 'for I have myself met such men.¹ In an age when books were very rare, it was but meet that great emphasis should have been laid on the development of memory. Special devices to help the memory : Though the memory of the average student was much better trained and developed than is the case now, the authors and educationalists left no stone unturned to lighten its burden. Ancient Indian educationalists had realised that rhime makes an appeal to æsthetic sensibility and facilitates the task of memorising. They therefore decided to utilise its help in the teaching work by composing text books in verse. Even dictionaries and elementary books on grammar were composed in verse. The development of the Sūtra style, where conclusions are stated in short and pithy sentences, is also due to the exigencies of the schools and colleges, the students of which had to rely more on their memory than on books and notes for recalling the contents of the works once studied by them. Erroneous Impression about Cramming : The fact that the modern Vedic Pandit does not know the meaning of the hymns he recites with flawless accuracy, has led to an erroneous impression that mere cramming was encouraged by the ancient Indian educational system. Such however was not the case. We have already shown how for many centuries even Vedic scholars could expound the meaning of the hymns they had committed to memory ; it was owing to the growth of the Vedic literature and the imperative necessity of committing the whole of it to memory, that it was reluctantly decided to assign the memo-

1. P. 183. 11

162 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. rising of the Vedic texts to one section of Brahmanas and their exposition to another. It had become humanly impossible to expect both the tasks to be done by the same individual. The Place of Exposition in Teaching : It is no doubt true that some Sūtra works like those on grammar and philosophy, which were committed to memory, are so cryptic as to be mostly unintelligible by themselves. They were written in that style merely to lighten the burden on the student's memory. Their teaching was accompanied by extensive lectures, some of which used to be later embodied in com- mentaries. The teaching of the important works on philosophy, logic and poetics was hardly possible without exhaustive discussions pertaining to the views expounded and controverted. In these discussions there was an unravelling of the subject matter, distinctions and contra-distinctions were drawn, and an effort was made to show the reasonableness of one's position and the errors of the opponent¹. The students of the various schools of orthodox and heterodox systems of religion and philosophy reading under Divākarasena used to listen to the exposition of their respective systems, deliberate on their natures, discuss their features, raise doubts on obscure themes, determine for themselves the main outlines and enter into discussion with the opponents². The same procedure must have been followed in other colleges of philosophy. Reasoning and analysis formed the crux of the method of study and teaching. The medium of instruction in higher studies was naturally

1. Mil. Pan. Vol. I, p. 46.
2. Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 163 Sanskrit; when however Prakrits and vernaculars developed, their help was also occasionally taken¹. Testimony of Chinese Pilgrims: Indian teachers were past masters in the art of explanation and exposition; students from distant countries like Korea and China used to brave the dangers of the perilous journey to India, not because they wanted to learn by rote the scriptures of their religion, but because they were anxious to hear the exposition of obscure metaphysical passages which could be heard nowhere else. What Yuan Chwang valued in his Indian teachers was not their capacity to recite the sacred texts, but their remarkable ability in explaining obscure passages and offering illuminative suggestions on doubtful points.² About his Indian gurus, I-tsing says, 'I have been always very glad that I had an opportunity of aquiring knowledge from them personally, which I *should otherwise have never possessed.'*³ The Place of Debates: Since early times, debates and discussions have always played an important part in the literary training of students. The Vedic literature refers to such literary combats and describes how the victors were suitably honoured (R. V., X. 71). This Vedic tradition continued throughout the later history. Śāstrārthas or learned debates were constantly held in colleges where students of literature, poetics, philosophy and logic were called upon to defend their own propositions and attack those of their opponents. The training in debates made students ready-witted and developed their powers of speech.

1. संस्कृतैः प्राकृतैर्वाक्यैर्यः शिष्यमनुरूपतः । देशभाषायुपायैश्च बोधयेत्स गुरुः स्मृतः ॥ Vishnudharma quoted by V.M.S., p. 72 (Jivanand's editio
2. Beal, Life, pp. 76, 154, 160
3. P. 185

164 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Other Devices in Teaching : The use of parables was often made in expounding obscure principles, as would appear from the plot of the Hitopadeśa and the Pañchatantra, where principles of politics are taught under the guise of telling stories about animals. The dialogue method was followed by many a philosopher, as would appear from the evidence of the Upanishads and the Buddhist Sūtras.¹ It enabled the teacher to ascertain the reactions in the student's mind to his own observations. The value of comparison and observation was also realised by many teachers who used to develop the power of understanding of dull students by asking them to carefully observe new facts and compare them with those already known.² Individual Attention : We have already shown at pp. 82-3 how the classes in ancient India were usually small ones, consisting of not more than 15 or 20 students. It was therefore possible to give individual attention to each student. This was one of the strongest points in the ancient Indian system of education. Lectures to large classes of 100 or 200 students, which are unintelligible to some, superfluous to others and partially useful to the rest, were unknown in ancient India. Students could not afford to go to the class room without thorough preparation. There was a daily examination of every student and no new lesson was given until the old one was thoroughly mastered.³ There were no annual examinations and mass promotions at fixed intervals.

1. It is interesting to note that many of the commentaries are in the form of a dialogue between the teacher and the student. The earlier part advances a view such as a student may be expected to hold as plausible, the later part contains its correction or refutation, as may be done by a teacher in his lecture.
2. Jātaka No. 124.
3. Mil Pan., I, p. 18.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 165 Clever students were not compelled to mark time for their dull companions as under the modern system of education. The educational system ministered to the needs and individual capactity of each student. If a student was intelligent and industrious, he could finish his education much earlier than is possible in modern times. The idle and careless student had not as pleasant a prospect of a merry college life as he has in the present age. Yuan Chwang says, ‘When disciples, intelligent and accute, are addicted to idle shirking, teachers doggedly persevere in repeating instructions until their training is finished’.¹ The Chinese traveller was very favourably impressed by the capacity of Indian teachers to rouse their students to activity and urge them to progress. Monitorial System: In order to make personal supervision effective, the cooperation and help of advanced students were enlisted in the cause of education. They used to guide the studies of the juniors under the general supervision of their teachers. About the Valabhi college students, I-tsing observes that they used to pass two or three years, ‘instructed by their teachers and instructing others’.² This system also obtained at Taxila; for instance, the Kuru prince Sutasoma, who aquired proficiency earlier, was entrusted with the teaching of his brother prince, the heir apparent of Benares.³ Senior students at Taxila were often put in charge of their schools during the temporary absence of their teachers.⁴ This method of entrusting teaching work to brilliant students had a great educational value.

1. Watters, I, p. 160.
2. P. 177.
3. Sutasoma-Jātaka, No. 537.
4. E. g., Sukha-vihārī Jātaka, No. 10.

166 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. It placed a high incentive before the student world. It afforded opportunities to intelligent students to learn the art of teaching, and thus indirectly per- formed the same function as the Teachers' Training Colleges discharge today. It increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of the school by affording intelligent and free assistance to the teacher. It is well known that Bell and Lancaster had based their Monitorial System on what one of them had observed in contemporary Indian schools. Conclusion : It will be seen from the above discussion that the method of teaching followed in ancient India was on the whole the best suited for an age, which did not enjoy the advantages of paper and printing. It developed the powers of memory, a faculty which is being sadly neglected in modern times. It did not however encourage cramming, bacause the texts that were memorised were well understood by students. Reflection and analysis was also encouraged especially in the case of those students who had taken logic, philosophy, poetics or literature. Lucid exposition was a forte of Indian teachers, for which they were well known all over Asia during the first millennium of the Christian era. Debates were a normal feature of higher education. Individual attention was paid to the needs of students, which naturally ensured good results. The student must however have intelligence.¹ Hindu educationalists have pointed out that the best

1. वितरति गुरुः प्राज्ञे विद्यां यथैव तथा जडे । न च खलु तयोर्ज्ञाने शक्तिं करोत्यपहन्ति वा ॥ भवति च तयोर्भूयान्भेदः फलं प्रति तद्यथा । प्रभवति मणिर्बिम्बोद्ग्राहे मणिर्न मृदां चयः ॥ Uttararāmachairt, Act, II.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 167 method would not produce the ideal scholar at the end of the course automatically. Time also was an important factor. Maturity of intellect and scholarship would become possible only by the lapse of years properly utilised in reading and reflection by an intelligent student.¹ EXAMINATIONS No Annual or Final Examinations : We have already seen that there were no annual or periodical examinations in ancient India. New lessons were given to students only when the teacher was satisfied after a searching oral examination that the old one was thoroughly mastered. The end of the education course was not marked by any lengthy and exhaustive examination, but by the pupil reciting and explaining the last lesson.² The modern practice to submit the student to what is known as Śulākā-parīkṣā, where he is asked to explain the problems discussed on a page opened at random, is not mentioned in ancient books. Even if it goes back to ancient times, it can hardly be compared to the modern system of examination. At the end of his education the scholar was presented to the local learned assembly, where occasionally some questions were asked.³ This presentation took place when the Samāvartana (convocation) ceremony was over.⁴ It is therefore clear that the eligibility of a student for Samāvartana or receiving the degree did not depend upon the opinion of the assembly, but upon the opinion of his teacher.

1. आचार्यात्पादमादत्ते पादं शिष्यः स्वमेधया । पादं सब्रह्मचारिभ्यः पादं कालक्रमेण तु ॥ Subhāshitam.
2. Mil. Pan.. I, p. 18.
3. Br. U., VI, 2, 1 and 2.
4. Dr. Gr. S., III 1, 26; Āp. Gr. S., I, 11, 5.

168 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Literary Tournaments: Rājaśekhara describes the examinations held in the royal court¹, and Charaka refers to heated discussions held in learned assemblies to test the relative merits of the contending physicians.² These examinations were, however, fundamentally different from modern degree examinations. Each participant in these literary affrays was anxious to prove, not that he possessed certain minimum quali- fications, but that he was the best poet or physician in the land, entitled to precedence, honour and annuities from the royal court What Charaka or Rājaśekhara have in contemplation is not a routine examination, but an intellectual combat among the distinguished physicians and scholars of the age. No Degrees or Diplomas : Since there were no degree examinations, there were naturally no degrees or diplomas. From Tārānātha we learn that the Pāla kings of Bengal, who were patrons and chancellors of the Vikramaśīlā University, used to grant diplomas to students in a convocation held at the end of their education.³ In medieval Bengal also learned bodies used to confer degrees like Tarkachakravartī and Tarkālaṅkāra on very distinguished scholars like Gadādhara and Jagadīśa. This practice of giving degrees and titles seems to be a new innovation of medieval times. Yuan Chwang informs us that unscrupulous scholars in the seventh century used to 'steal the name of Nālandā' in order to gain more respect⁴. This would not have been possible if the Nālandā University were in the habit of granting regular diplomas to those who had finished their 1 Kāvya-mīmāṁsā, p. 55. 2 Vimānasthāna, 8. 3 Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities, p. 61 4 Watters, II, p. 165.

VI] HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION 169 courses there. Passing examinations and getting degrees, which dominate the present system of educa- tion, played hardly any part in ancient India. It was not the allurement of the degrees or the prizes but the thirst of knowledge or the desire to preserve the national heritage which was the main spring of the educational effort and activity. Competition kept within Limits : The absence of annual examinations with prizes and scholarships for the top boys naturally kept the element of competi- tion within proper limits. Bright and promising students were however selected as monitors and entrusted with the teaching of lower classes. So they also got their reward. The absence of alluring prizes and scholarships however naturaly did not make them burn midnight oil, often to the great detriment of their health. No Degree to serve as a Shield : Students in ancient India had not to pass through the fiery ordeal of examinations ; their lot, however, was by no means more enviable than that of the modern students. Armed with his irrevocable degree, the modern graduate can afford to forget all that he had learnt, and no one can question his competence. The scholar in ancient India could not take shelter behind the buttress of a degree. He had to keep his scholarship fresh and up-to-date, for he was liable to be challenged at any moment for a literary affray (Śāstrārtha), and society used to judge his merit by the way in which he aquitted himself in such discussions. All that he had learnt, he had to keep ready at the tip of his tongue ; he could neither point to his diploma nor ask for time to refer to his note-books.

CHAPTER VII. PRIMARY EDUCATION. Primary education why not important in early times—It did not include the 3 R's before c. 1000 B. C.—Reading and writing included in it in the first millennium B. C.—Obligatory Upanayana helps the spread of literacy—The curriculum and agencies of primary education—The time of its commencement—Methods of teaching—Primary schools and teachers—Extent of literacy— Vernacular education—Literacy at c. 1800 A. D. Primary Education not important in Ancient Times :—Having finished our survey of higher literary education in the last chapter, let us now turn to primary education. Primary education in the sense of the knowledge of the 3 R's has become important only in the modern age. At a time when paper and printing were unknown, the ability to read and write was not a very valuable or useful attainment for the smith, the carpenter or the agriculturist. Today it is rightly held that even the ordinary labourer or the artisan should receive primary education, for it enables him to utilise his spare time in reading useful literature which increases his knowledge, widens his outlook and makes him a more useful and intelligent member of society. Literacy however did not serve this purpose in ancient times both in the East and the West. Paper and printing being both unknown, books were fragile, costly and beyond the means of the average workman or the agriculturist. The ability to read and write did not thus afford the means of a wider intercourse with the thoughts and ideals of the best minds of the race, as far as the ordinary man was concerned. He could obtain access to the best wisdom of his nation rather by attending Kathās and

VII] PRIMARY EDUCATION 171 Kīrtanas (popular religious sermons) delivered by religious preachers, than by trying to reach the doors of a library, which was a rather rare institution. Primary education as an end in itself therefore did not appeal to ancient Indians ; they could look upon it only as a step to higher education. It therefere natur- ally does not much occupy their thoughts ; Sṛmitis say next to nothing about it. Kindergarten Stage : Problems connected with the Kindergarten stage of education did hardly engage the attention of ancient Indian thinkers. This need not surprise us, for in the West too they have been only recently tackled by educationalists. Our educationalists held that education was a serious affair and they were not very enthusiastic about com- bining it with play and games. They felt that a skilful teacher can make his lesson interesting by taking the help of the story and held that the use of the rhime was quite sufficient to make uninteresting things like multiplication tables quite attractive to the child. Like ancient thinkers in all other lands, they have not proposed any devices of the kindergarten type to make lessons attractive to the young child. PRIMARY EDUCATION IN EARLY TIMES (Upto c. 1000 B. C.) Modern Primary Education Non-existent :— It is a moot point whether the art of writing was known in the early Vedic period. Even if it was known, we must remember that its use for the preservation of sacred literature was tabooed for a long time. The latter continued to live only in the memory of scholars for several centuries. Secular literature had not yet come into existence, grammar and arithmetic were yet to be developed and