प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 185 Some general Features : Medical education was usually imparted by private teachers. There was a ri- tual at the admission of students which will be described in Appendix 1, E. The student had to be well grounded in Sanskrit, for most of the books on medicine were written in that language. Learning by rote was condemned ; Suśruta compares a person having only a verbal knowledge of the medical texts to a donkey conscious of the heaviness but not of the quality of the burden it carries. Specialisation was encouraged ; students were expected to master the different branches of learning from different experts.¹ Practical training in surgery and pharmacy and constant discussion of abstruse points among the students and teachers were some of the important features of the training.² **Training in Surgery :—**We can get a fairly good idea of the training in surgery from our sources. The beginners were taught how to hold and use the surgical instruments by practising upon pumpkins, cucumbers, water melons, etc., under the teacher's directions. Puncturing was demonstrated on the veins of dead animals, the manner of holding the probe on dry Alābu fruits, scarification on stretched pieces of leather covered with hair, sewing on thin pieces of cloth or skin, application of bandages on stuffed human figures and the use of caustics on soft pieces of flesh.³ The novice was then gradually initiated in real cases and allowed to extract darts, cleanse wounds, and use the knife in piercing and cutting diseased parts of the body. How surgical wounds are to be made to dry up was also demonstrated. Practice in the adminis- 1 Suśruta, Sūtrasthāna, IV. 4. 4-8 2 Charaka. Vimānasthāna, 8. 4 3 Suśruta, Sūtrasthāna, Chap. 9 4 Mil. Pan., Vol. II, 254-5

186 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch- tration of emetics, purges and enemas was given to all. Suśruta emphasises on the importance of dissection for perfecting the student's knowledge, and points out that mere book learning cannot give a clear idea of the- actual internal constitution of the human body. Corpses used to be decomposed in water and students- were then required to dissect them and visualise the nature of skin, muscles, arteries, bones, internal organs, etc.¹ Anatomical knowledge that was thus imparted. was fairly high when compared with the contemporary standards elsewhere. Unfortunately in the course of time the dissection of human body went out of vogue, causing a setback to the progress of the medical science. Arrangements for Practical Training—Students received practical training in surgery and medicine, usually through private practice of their teachers. In some cases hospitals were attached to colleges. In great cities like Pāṭalīputra there existed big charitable hos- pitals, which must have afforded good opportunities for training medical students. Indian hospitals were well organised, for Hindu doctors were invited by the Abbaside Khalifas to supervise their own hospitals in the 8th century A D. It is to be regretted that Fa Hsien should not have given us detailed information of the hospitals, which he had seen at Pāṭlīputra. If he had done this, we would have probably known a good deal about the hospital management and medical education during the 5th century A.D. ' Duration of the Course and Examination :— The exact duration of the medical course is not known. Charaka and Suśruta do not enlighten us on the point. In the days of the Buddha, the medical 1 Suśruta, Śarīrasthāna, 5.49.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 187 course at Taxila was fairly long; for his physician Jīvaka was permitted to go home very reluctantly by his teacher, though he had spent seven years at that University. Charaka observes that no one can obtain a real all round efficiency in Āyurveda; this would also suggest a very long course. We may well presume that the student had to spend at least eight years, before he could get mastery in the subject. The completion of the course was followed by an examination. This is implied by the observation of Charaka¹ and Suśruta² that it is the king's fault, if incompetent doctors practise the medical profession. Śukra also prohibits a person to practise as a doctor without possessing the king's license.³ None of our authorities however discloses the conditions under which the royal permission was granted under efficient administration. Very probably it must have been given to students who were certified to have finished their course either by superintendents of state hospitals, principals of colleges or famous private practitioners. High ideals placed before the Medicoes : The convocation address before the medical graduates exhorted them to follow a very high ideal of profes- sional conduct.⁴ They must relieve distress in all quarters. They must strive for the welfare of all humanity. They must not desert a patient, even when their own life was in danger. They must continue study and research throughout their life. Achievements in the Medical Science : The above advice seems to have been followed in a very large number of cases. India continued to be famous

1. Sūtrasthāna, 29.8
2. Sūtrasthāna, III. 52; X. 3
3. I. 804
4. See Appendix III

188 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. for its medical skill throughout the ancient period. Her doctors could perform surgical operations for cataract, hydrocele, abscesses, extraction of dead embryos, etc.¹ They were in demand in Messo- potamia and Arabia for guiding and training the physicians there. Khalifa Harun sent several scholars to India to study Hindu medicine and pharmacology and induced about 20 doctors to come to Baghdad to become chief medical officers of state hospitals and to translate Sanskrit medical work into Arabic. Most celebrated among them was Manakā (Māṇikya), who was originally invited to cure an ailment of Sultan Harun, which defied the skill of Arabian physicians. He succeeded in his treatment and was later induced to become the director of state hospitals and translate the work of Suśruta into Arabic.² Arabic system 1 Sītā apprehended that Rāvaṇa might kill and dissect her limb by limb like a surgeon extracting a dead embryo; cf. तस्मिन्ननागच्छति लोकनाथे गर्भस्थजन्तोरिव शल्यकृन्तः । नूनं ममांगान्यचिरादनार्यः शस्त्रैः शितैश्छेत्स्यति मानवेन्द्रः ॥ • Rāmāyaṇa, V. 28. 6 Non-discovery of anaesthetics aad sterilisation processes was stauding in the way of progress. Wine was administered as a partial anaes- thetic. The Bhojaprabandha refers to an anæsthetic called mohanichūrṇa: but since it is mentioned in connection with a miraculous cure effected by the divine physicians Aśvins, we may doubt its general knowledge or use. cf. ततस्तावपि राजानं मोहचूर्णेन मोहयित्वा शिरःकपालमादाय तत्करोटिकापुटे स्थितं शफरकुलं गृहीत्वा कस्मिंश्चिद्भाजने निक्षिप्य संधान- करण्या कपालं यथावदारचय्य संजीवन्या च तं जीवयित्वा तस्मै तददर्शयताम् ॥ Bhojaprabandha, after v. 318 2. S. K. Nadvi. Arab aur Bharat ke sambandha, pp. 108-28 ; Alberuni, Introduction, p. XXXI. Saleh bin Bahala and Dahan (Dhanvantari ?) were two of the famous colleagues of Manaka, who accompanied him to Baghdad.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 189 of medicine owes a great deal to the Ayurvedic system. Medical Education in Later Times :—Training in the medical profession was fairly efficient in India down to the 10th century A. D. Ayurvedic doctors were keeping themselves in touch with the discoveries and developments taking place elsewhere, and also experimenting upon new preparations as better medicines for ailments and diseases. The use of mer- cury, opium and metallic preparations was introduced into the pharmacopeia in the medieval times. Dis- continuance of dissection and consequent decline in surgery however gave a setback to the system. Owing to the prevalence of stricter notions of ceremonial purity, the touch of the corpse became a taboo and dissection was consequently given up. This became fatal to progress in surgery, the practice of which gradually died down. The medical profession began to be held in low esteem as the doctor had to deal with filthy diseases and touch dying patients. In the earlier period famous doctors like Aśvins and Dhan- vantari were deified; now the followers of the profession began to be regarded as defilers of the company at a dinner table.¹ Purāṇas state that medicine became the profession of the descendants of the illegiti- mate son born to sage Gālava from his maid-servant Ambā.² Occasionally we no doubt come across grants of villages given to doctors by kings; there can be however no doubt that society as a whole looked down

1. Manu, III. 152.
2. Some of the Smṛtis also e. g. B. D. S., I. 8. 9. assign the medical profession to the children of a mixed caste sprung from the union of a Brahmana father and Vaishya mother.

190 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. upon the medical profession, which could not but have told upon its efficiency and progress.¹ Veterinary Education :—The veterinary science had been developed in India fairly early. Śālihotra is its traditional founder and two of the Pāṇḍava heroes, Nakula and Sahadeva are said to have been experts in it. In the 3rd century B. C. veterinary doctors were fairly common ; Asoka could find them in necessary numbers to man his hospitals for animals throughout the country. The army authorities used to employ them in army to treat the ailments of horses and elephants (Arthaśāstra, II. 30-2). There were special books also dealing with these subjects.² We however do not come across any veterinary schools or colleges, nor do we possess any information as to how veterinary doctors were trained. Probably army authorities used to organise their own schools to meet their own needs. In villages the profession may have been hereditary in some farmers' families, which may have occasionally taken some outsiders also to be trained as apprentices. MILITARY EDUCATION Vedic Period : During the Vedic period the military profession must have been a popular one, as

1. An incidental observation in the Mitāksharā would show that the medical course was finished in four instead of eight years during the 12th century A. D. ; of :— अन्तेवासी गुरोर्गृहे कृतकालं वर्षचतुष्टयमायुर्वेदशिल्पशिक्षार्थे त्वद्गृहे वसामीति । On Yāj. II. 184. 2 Aśvavaidyaka of Jayadatta, Aśvachikitsā of Nakula and Hastyāyurveda of Pālakāpya (published in A.S. series) are the important works on the veterinary science. Some of these works in their present form are not later than c. 800 A.D., but they had their precursors, now unfortunately lost.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 191 the Aryans were engaged in subjugating the non- Aryans (dasyus) and establishing their supremacy in the country. We have however no information as to how military education was imparted. The superiority in horsemanship and chariot-fighting constituted the key to the Aryan success; considerable time must therefore have been devoted to give proper training in these subjects to the members of the fighting force. Chariot races, which were very popular in the age, must have played an important part in increasing the military efficiency of the chariot corps. Practice in the use of the bow and the arrow, the shield, the mace and the spear, which were the main offensive and defensive weapons of the age, must have played an important part in the training of the infantry. Non-official Training Agencies: In modern times military training is usually given only by the state authorities when recruits join the army. Such was not the case in ancient India. The average citizen and villager was expected to be able to defend his own hearth and home; the Arthaśāstra expressly lays down that every village ought to be able to defend itself (II. 34). Villagers and citizens therefore had to make their own arrangements to get the necessary facility in the use of the weapons of the age in order to be ready for any eventuality. There were no military schools as such for this purpose; with the voluntary help of the elderly experts in the village, most of its youths could be trained in the use of the bow and the arrow, the lathi and the lance. That such was actually the case in several parts of India would become quite clear from the accounts of Alexander’s invasion, as given by the Greek historians. In several places the Macedonian hero was opposed not so much by state forces as by the whole population

192 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.. in arms.¹ There can be no doubt that in many of the republican states of the Punjab, e. g. the Kaṭhas, the Mālavas, the Sibis, etc., every adult used to receive military training of a fairly high order. Probably the same was the case under monarchies, though perhaps to a less degree. Many villages had developed high military traditions and used to be exempted from taxation on agreeing to supply a certain quota to the army.² ***Military Schools :—***There were also some cities in the country, famous as centres of military training. Taxila, situated in the North-Western Frontier Province, had naturally become a centre of military training. Kshatriyas and Brahmanas from all over the country used to go to this frontier city for getting mastery in the military profession. In one military college of this city there were 103 princes receiving training in the different branches of the military art.³ Unfortunately we get no information about the management of this college, nor do we know whether it was a private or a state institution. Probably the former was the case. **Professional Military Coaches :—**From about the 5th century B. C. big empires began to be built up in ancient India, and soon thereafter the country came into contact with the disciplined soldiers of the Greek army. This gave an impetus to intensive military training and many enterprising captains began to start private military coaching classes with a view to supply highly trained soldiers to the state. Many such captains existed as early as the 2nd century

1. Mc. Crindle, Ancient India, Its Invasion by Alexander the Great, p. 140.
2. Arthaśāstra, IX. 1
3. Sutasoma Jātaka, No. 222

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 193 B. C.; they used to supply trained soldiers to kings and receive in return from them lands, money, horses, etc. by way of reward.¹ Targets of clay or stuffed human figures were used to teach accurate aiming. A 9th century inscription from the Deccan also refers to a military captain, who is described as a marvel in training horses² ; it is not however known whether this officer was conducting a private class or whether he was a regular professor in a military college maintained by the Rāshṭrakūṭa administration. Conclusion :— The general impression left by the literary and epigraphical evidence of the 1st millennium A.D. is that a good deal of preliminary military train- ing was given almost universally in all villages under the aegius of the village Panchayats. Organised insti- tutions for military training probably did not exist in moffusil villages. Retired members of the state hereditary forces and local experts used to organise and manage military classes in their own villages, which were attended by most of the able-bodied adults in the locality. Further training was imparted by ad- venturous captains and final touches were given after the enlistment of the soldier in the state army in daily drills. It would appear that the weakness of the Hindu military machine lay in too much reliance being placed upon the training received by soldiers as militia men. This training, while quite sufficient to meet the needs of local disturbances, was inadequate to with- stand regularly trained armies. Education of Princes :— A few words may be conveniently said here about the education of princes. In the early period we find kings sending their sons to

1. Mil. Pan., Vol. II, pp. 135-4
2. E. I., XIII, p. 187. 13

194 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. distant centres of education like Taxila to receive education there more or less like commoners. But from about the 3rd century B. C. it became the usual practice to establish special schools for the education of the scions of the royal family.¹ Sons and wards of ministers and high officers of the state were also permitted to join these schools, as it was realised that suitable companions and mutual competition were neces- sary to ensure satisfactory results. The Royal School was usually located in the vicinity of the capital. It consisted of several spacious halls, each suitable for its special purpose. Gymnasium, swimming pools and extensive grounds for military exercises were provided. Experts were recruited from all over the country to teach different subjects. The curriculum included a study of the Vedas and philosophy, but naturally only such knowledge of these subjects was imparted as was necessary for general culture. Special attention was paid to the study of history, economics, politics, administration, and civil and criminal law. Lectures on these subjects were delivered usually in the afternoon, the morning time being devoted to the athletic and military exercises. Princes were expected to be experts in the use of different arms like the sword, the lance and the bow and arrow. Tournaments and hunting parties were often organised to test their skill. Fine arts like music and painting were also taught. Students in these royal schools used to stay in the boarding houses ; their parents used to go there occasionally to see them and find out how they were progressing. The school course terminated usually at the end of the 16th year, when princes were allowed to marry. Though after this time, they would usually leave the boarding and begin to stay in the palace with their

1. Arthas'âstra, I, Kâdambarī, p. 149,

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 195 family, their education would not terminate. Training in actual administration would begin after this period and last for about seven or eight years. At the age of 24 the education would become fully complete and princes were then regarded as eligible to become heir- apparents. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION General Condition of Commerce :—In the Vedic age, the Aryans had a greater liking for the sword than for the sclaes ; Paṇis who were then controlling commerce are contemptuously spoken of in the Vedas. Gradually however when there remained no fresh lands to conquer and acquire, the Aryans must have turned to commerce. There was considerable inter-provincial and foreign trade going on in the Mauryan period. The maritime activity of ancient India was considerable, and the trade with Rome was very profitable to India during the early centuries of the Christian era. Much of it however was in the hands of Dravidians. Scope of Commercial Education: We can get some idea of the scope and nature of commercial education from the training prescribed for the Vaishya caste by Manu,¹ and the qualifications required by Kauṭilya in the superintendent of commere.³ First of all a knowledge of the varieties in quality of the articles to be dealt with was imparted. Then came commercial geography, for the trader was expected to know the places where the different articles were produced and the nature of the route by which they had to be imported. Customs barriers in the period we are discussing were numerous, and profits often depended on selecting a route where the customs

1. IX, 381-882. 2. II, 16.

196 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. duties were relatively light. The needs of the people of the various localities were to be carefully studied with a view to find out possible markets. A knowledge of different places and occasions of fares and pilgrimages was also imparted as it was necssary in this connection. The knowledge of the relative prices of different articles in different provinces and countries was also regarded as essential. Students were also taught the exchange value of articles and also of different currencies in various provinces and countries. Those who intended to deal with inter-provincial or inter-national trade were also given a working knowledge of the necessary languages. Principles of banking also formed part of the course. It is difficult to determine the percentage of persons in the trading community who received so wide an education. In the hereditary trading families of high status, all this education may have been a reality ; much of it must have been unconsciously picked up by the youths in the family shops. In the case of petty merchants the extent of the education was probably determined by the needs of the situation. Agencies of Education :—During the first millen- nium of the Christian era, most of the trades in the country had formed very efficient guilds. One of them is known to have maintained an Arts college in Karna- tak during the 12th century A.D.¹ It is however strange to find that the commercial guilds should not have organised and managed commercial schools and colleges. The reason however is not far to seek. Down to the 5th century A.D. organised educational institutions did not exist even for literary courses. When they became fairly common in the country a 1 I.A., Vol. VIII, p. 195.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 197 few centuries later, commercial classes did not feel it necessary to copy their example. By this time the caste system had become hereditary and the training in different trades and industries was usually imparted in the family itself by the elders. Where there were no elders in the family to train its children, they were usually attached as apprentices to some neighbouring trader or artisan. This apprenticeship system, which will be soon described, rendered any regular schools of the modern type unnecessary. TRAINING IN ARTS AND CRAFTS. **Introduction :—**We shall now consider the pro- blems connected with the training of students in arts and handicrafts like sculpture, artchitecture, painting, carpentry, smithy, agriculture, etc. Our sources of information are scanty, because neither Smṛitis, which have written about education, nor foreign pilgrims like Yuan Chwang and I-tsing who often throw consider- able light on educational conditions, were interested in the problems connected with the training in arts and handicrafts. Attitude towards Arts and Crafts : Early Period :— It will be convenient at the outset to consider the general attitude of society towards arts and crafts. In the early period they were held in high esteem. Agriculture was the general profession for the average Aryan. There are prayers both in the Ṛigveda and the Atharvaveda for success in various agricultural processes and operations. It was not therefore a profession held in low esteem as in later times. The carpenter was so impor- tant a member of the Vedic society that the chief of his guild was included among the twelve courtiers to whose houses the king had to repair in person for offering oblations at the time of his coronation. Ṛibhus,

198 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. originally human beings, were deified as a reward for their extraordinary skill in manual arts. The same was the case with Aśvins, who though originally human princes, were later raised to the pantheon on account of their medical skill. Society's Attitude In later Days : In later times however the attitude of society changed, primarily due to the development of the rigid caste system. The elevation of the Brahmanas and Ksha- triyas was at the cost of the Vaishyas and Shudras, who generally used to follow manual arts and handi- crafts. As the status of the Vaishyas and Shudras declined, the angle of vision to look at their usual professions also changed. Manual arts and crafts began to be held in low esteem. Carpenters and doctors for example began to be regarded as children of intercaste unions, which were disapproved by the contemporary orthodox opinion. All this resulted in a gradual boycott by Brahmanas and Kshatriyas of manual arts and crafts. As the best intellect of the community would not condescend to help their progress, the general level of skill began to decline both in fine and useful arts from about the 8th century A. D. Apprenticeship System : The training in fine and useful arts¹ was usually given by the apprentice- ship system under which the student agreed to work

1. विज्ञानमुच्यते शिल्पं हेमकुप्यादिसंस्थितिः । नृत्यादिकं च तच्छिक्षन्कुर्यात्कर्म गुरोर्गृहे ॥ बृहस्पति in विवादरत्नाकर, p. 141. Devanabhaṭṭa, while commenting on this observes कंकणकटका- दिनिर्माणविषयं नृत्यं गीतादिकरणविषयं चकारात्स्तंभकुंभादिरचनाविषयं च विज्ञानं शिल्पमुच्यते ।

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 199 under his teacher for an agreed number of years. During this period the teacher was to afford free boarding and lodging to his apprentice. Our authorities do not state the duration of the agreement, but it must have varied with different crafts. It was usually longer than the period required to master the craft, because the teacher was expected to be compensated for the trouble in teaching and the expenses in feeding the apprentice from the wages he would earn as a fully trained worker during the remaining period of his indenture. The apprentice could not back out of the agreement, if the teacher was not remiss in his duties. If he deserted his teacher without a sufficient cause, he was brought back and compelled to stay, learn and work.¹ The neglect of the training of the apprentice and the assignment to him of

1. Cf स्वशिल्पमिच्छन्नाहर्तु बान्धवानामनुज्ञया । आचार्यस्य वसेदन्ते कृत्वा कालं सुनिश्चितम् ॥ १७ ॥ आचार्यः शिक्षयेदेनं स्वगृहे दत्तभोजनम् । न चान्यत्कारयेत्कर्म पुत्रवच्चैनमाचरेत् ॥ १८ ॥ शिक्षयन्तमदुष्टं य आचार्यं संपरित्यजेत् । बलाद्वासयितव्यस्स्याद्वधबन्धौ च सोर्हति ॥ १९ ॥ शिक्षितोपि कृतं कालमन्तेवासी समाप्नुयात् । तत्र कर्म च यत्कुर्यादाचार्यस्यैव तत्फलम् ॥ २० ॥ गृहीतशिल्पः समये कृत्वाचार्यप्रदक्षिणाम् । शक्तितश्चानुमान्यैनमन्तेवासी निवर्तते ॥ २१ ॥ वेतनं वा यदि कृतं ज्ञात्वा शिष्यस्य कौशलम् । अन्तेवासी समादद्यान्न चान्यस्य गृहे वसेत् ॥ २२ ॥ नारदस्मृति, शुश्रूषाभ्युपगमप्रकरणम् ।

200 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. work unconnected with his craft¹ were regarded as sufficient causes to nullify the agreement and permit the apprentice to leave his teacher. At the end of the agreed period, the student could leave his teacher after offering him a suitable honorarium. If however the teacher offered him suitable wages, he was expected to serve him in preference to a stranger.² Workshop Atmosphere during Training:—Our authorities lay down that the apprentice should live in his teacher's house or factory for all the 24 hours. This was to ensure a thorough acquaintance with and grounding in the different processes of the craft that could be picked up only by an intimate and prolonged contact with the various stages of the manufacturing processes. Students were also trained to make their own tools in order to ensure perfect mastery of the profession. A painter, for example, made his own brushes from out of roots or fibres, hair of squirrels or awns of various grasses. He did not rely on colours prepared by others, but knew how to make them himself. A repousser was taught to make tools suitable for the work in hand. Painter's Training as an Illustration :—In order to give an idea of the various stages of the training of

1. यस्तु न ग्राहयेच्छिल्पं कर्माण्यन्यानि कारयेत् । प्राप्नुयात्साहसं पूर्वं तस्माच्छिष्यो निवर्तते । Kātyāyana in Aparārka on Yāj. II, 84.
2. There is some resemblance between the Indian apprenticeship system outlined above and the system prevailing in medieval Europe. In Europe too the apprentice had to spend the earlier part of his indenture period learning his craft and getting no wages. When he had learnt his art, he would become a journeyman, but he could undertake no work except through and for the benefit of his master. At the end of the agreed period, he was at liberty to start his own business. In Europe, guilds would permit an artisan to take only one student for training; we do not know whether there were similar restric- tions in ancient India. Graves, A history of Education, Vol. II, p. 97.

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 201 the apprentice, we shall give here the different stages in the training of the painter. The apprentice was first given a practice in drawing lines and curves. When the hand, eye and memory were trained in the use of fundamental curves in this fashion, traditional ornaments and decorative motifs were taught. Then followed a training in the drawing of the mythical animals and designs with men and beasts in them. The master would then take his apprentice to assist him in his work at the temple. At first the student would help the teacher only in grinding colours, then in priming the surfaces, then in applying ground colours and finally in filling the outlines sketched by his master. Experience was thus given in practical work. In the course of time when the teacher was satisfied about the sincerity, devotion and ability of the apprentice, he would impart the trade secrets. Throughout the course the technique of the profession was taught in relation to real things and problems.¹ **Theoretical and Moral Training :—**Nor was theo- retical and moral training neglected. A working knowledge of Sanskrit was imparted to advanced workers in sculpture, painting and architecture, as most of the theoretical works on the subjects were written in that language. A knowledge of Purāṇas and works on iconography was necessary both for the sculptor and the painter in order to chisel or paint properly the various themes of the Pauranic history and mythology. Architects and engineers used to receive the necessary grounding in mathematics also. The apprentice was always asked to remember that he was expected to be a pious and honest person abiding by the rules prescribed for the artists by sacred texts 1, Coomaraswami, The Indian Craftsman, pp. 88-90.

202 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch.. and tradition. The doctor was to remember that he was to save his patient even at the cost of his own life, if necessary. Efficiency of Training : The training under the above apprenticeship system was fairly efficient, for it was both theoretical and practical and given in the workshop itself. It helped to raise the general level of the skill and workmanship in several arts and crafts. Indian artisans took no time in manufacturing scrapers and sponges that they first saw being used by Greek invaders. Fine thread and wool were used to manufacture sponges and they were then dyed, so that they looked similar to Greek articles. The efficiency of the Punjab ship-builders may be inferred from the fact that they could supply to Alexander the Great a huge fleet, probably of not less than 1,000 boats, in about three months' time. The skill in mining, metallurgy, smelting and welding attained by ancient Indians was of a high order; experts are still wondering how the composition of the famous Iron Pillar near Kutub Minar at Delhi could be made so flawless by the metallurgists of Chandragupta II (c. 375-413 A. D.) as to prevent its rusting in spite of its being exposed to rain and sunshine for more than fifteen centuries. In the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, we find a fairly accurate knowledge of the nature of the ores of gold, silver, copper, etc., and of the processes by which they were purified (II, 12-3). The weaving industry could command the markets of the greater part of the Old World before it was crushed by the advent of the steam engine in the 19th century. In sculpture we find a continuous progress from c. 200 B. C. and a readiness to learn even from the foreigner. Paintings as illustrated at Ajanta show a high development of the art. The beautiful cave temples of western India

VIII] PROFESSIONAL AND USEFUL EDUCATION 203. and the graceful as well as huge shrines of Orissa and South India show that the Indian architect could solve a number of difficulties, which we think it hardly possible to overcome except with the help of the modern machinary. Was Professional Education narrow ? : Prima facie the professional education as given by the apprenticeship system seems to be narrow ; the student seems to have been taught only what the tradition and works of his profession had to teach. There is, however, some historical evidence to show that many of the artists and artisans of the age used to possess a good amount of cultural and literary education as well. Thus some of the members of the weavers' guilds at Daśapura (in Malva) used to take active interest in astronomy and folklore during the 5th century A. D. There is no evidence to prove or disprove that what was true of this guild at Mandsore was true of the average artisan of the period. The conclusion may, however, be hazarded that down to the 8th or the 9th century A. D. artisans of the highest grade used to receive a fair amount of liberal education. Later on owing to the decline of literacy and the low esteem in which arts and handi- crafts began to be held, there was a setback and artisans began to blindly follow the processes that were handed down to them by tradition.

Chapter IX FEMALE EDUCATION Eligibility of women for sacrifices necessitates their Upanayana and helps their education—Two classes of girl-students—Attainments of lady scholars in the early period—Early Buddhism helps female education—Arrangements for teaching girl students—Was there coeducation ? Deterioration of women's religious status after c. 200 B. C. retards their education— So does the lowering of the marriage age—Lady authors of the 1st millennium A. D.—They belonged to cultured families—Female education in ordinary families—Buddhism ceases to help it—Education of princesses and Kshatriya girls—Female education and economic independence—Female education in medieval times. SECTION I Female Education before c. 200 B. C. **A strange Phenomenon :—**The history of the most of the known civilisations shows that the further back we go into antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found to be the general position of women. Hindu civilisation is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising exception to the general rule. The further back we go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of women in more spheres than one. And the field. of education is most noteworthy among them. We can however understand this strange phenomenon when we remember that for a long time education in ancient India meant Vedic education, and that it had to be necessarily imparted to all who were expected to take part in Vedic sacrifices. irrespective of their sex. Women eligible for Vedic Sacrifices : There is ample and convincing evidence to show that women were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the