प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

Chapter X A GENERAL RESUME. CONTRIBUTIONS OF BUDDHISM TO EDUCATION—Ordination ceremony—Relations between the novice and the teacher—Education of the laity—Rise of public educational institutions due to Buddhism— Non-sectarian courses also provided for in them—Buddhism and primary education—Estimate of the contributions of the Buddhism. PERIOD-WISE SURVEY: History divided into four periods—Educa- tion in the Vedic period—The Upanishad-Sūtra age (1000 B.C. to c. 200 B.C.) a creative period—Education in this period—The period of the Dharmaśāstra (c. 200 B.C.—500 A.D.) an age of reflection and specia- lisation—The general condition of education in it—The age of the Purāṇas and Nibandhas, (c. 500-1200 A.D.)—Its achievements and limitations. Introduction : In the course of our narrative so far we have finished the history of the origin and development of the different branches of education in ancient India. We devoted separate chapters to topics like primary education, professional education, educational institutions, etc., and the treatment in each of them must have enabled the reader to visualise clearly the development and vicissitudes that took place in their connection from age to age. We also indicated at each place the contribution that Buddhism made to the development of education in ancient India. For a proper understanding of the subject it is however desirable that the reader should get a clear picture of the educational conditions as a whole in the successive periods of ancient Indian history, as also of the contribution which the Buddhism made to educa- tional theory and practice. We therefore propose to devote the present chapter for this purpose. Its first section will give a general resume of the contribution of the Buddhism to ancient Indian education and the

226 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. second section will provide a bird's eye view of the general condition of education in the successive periods of Indian history. SECTION A. BUDDHISM AND ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION No Fundamental Difference : There was no fundamental difference between Hindus and Buddhists as far as the general educational theory or practice was concerned. It was the fundamental tenet of Buddhism that the world is full of sorrow and that the salvation can be obtained only by renouncing it. In the beginning therefore it naturally concerned itself only with the education of novices and monks. When however in the course of time it took up the education of the laity also, its educational system did not present any important points of difference from those of Hinduism. Both systems had similar ideals and followed similar methods. This must have become quite clear to the reader from the previous chapters and will become clearer still from this section. We shall first however say a few words about the ordination ceremony. Ordination Ceremony : The wise injunction of the Buddha, that every novice should be properly trained in the discipline and doctrine of the religion, was primarily responsible for the educational developments in and activities of Buddhist monasteries. Two ceremonies were laid down for those who desired to enter the Order, the Pabbajjā and the Upasampadā. The Pabbajjā marked the beginning of the noviciate period and could be given when a person was not

X] CONTRIBUTION OF THE BUDDHISM 227 less than eight years old. The permission of the guardian was necessary. The Upasampadā was given after the end of the noviciate period, and the recepient had to be not less than twenty years old. ¹If he was a debtor, an invalid or a government servant, he was refused admission. The ordination could take place only with the consent of the whole chapter. There were no caste restrictions for admission (ante, p.), The novice had to affirm his faith in the Buddha, his Dhamma (gospel) and Saṅgha (the Order), and select a learned person as his preceptor. He was to follow strictly the rules and discipline of the Order ; if he was guilty of any serious breach of discipline, he could be expelled by a meeting of the chapter. Like the Hindu Brahmachārī (student), he was expected to beg his daily food ; but he was also permitted to accept invitations for meals from laymen. He was to do all manual and menial work connected with the monastic life, e. g. cleansing its floor and utensils, bringing water, supervising its stores, etc. The Relation between the Novice and his Teacher were filial in character ; they were united together by mutual reverence, confidence and affection. Like the Hindu Brahmachārin, the Buddhist novice was to help his teacher by doing a variety of manual work for him ; he was to carry his seat and robes, supply him water and tooth stick, cleanse his begging bowl and utensils and accompany him as an attendant when he proceeded to the town or village for begging or preaching. The teacher was to teach the student the rules of etiquette and discipline, draw his

1. Like Upanayana, it has been compared to a spiritual birth ; Cf. अरियाय जातितो जातो Majjhima Nikāya, II. p. 108 ; Therīgāthā, No. 17.

228 : EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. particular attention to the vow of chastity, poverty and abstinence from pleasures and help him in his intellectual and spiritual progress by suitable discourses and lessons in the morning and afternoon. He was also to help him in getting food and robes, and even to nurse him if he was sick. His own life was to be exemplary and the novice was permitted to act as a check on him if he was wavering in his faith or about to commit a breach of monastic discipline. The needs of the teacher were to be the minimum ; the famous teachers at Nālandā used to receive an allowance only three times larger than the amount given to an ordinary student. This would give a very clear idea as to how Buddhist teachers led a very simple life and cost next to nothing to society. They were lifelong students of their different subjects ; for marriage did not intervene to put an end to or an obstacle in their studies. The Education of the Laity : As observed already, in the beginning Buddhist education was purely monastic and was intended only for those who entered, or intended to enter, the Order. This was but natural. Buddhism held that the worldly life was full of sorrow and that the salvation could be possible only by renouncing it. It could therefore naturally evince no interest in the education of those who intended to follow secular life and pursuits. In the course of time however it was realised that it was necessary to win public sympathy and support for the spread of the gospel ; this could be more successfully done if the Buddhist monk could help the cause of education as was done by his theological opponent, the Brāhmaṇa priest. It was also realised that the best way to spread the gospel was to undertake the

X] CONTRIBUTION OF THE BUDDHISM 229 education of the rising generation. This was calculated to enable the Order to mould and influence the minds of the younger section of the society, when they were very pliable. There was thus a better chance of both recruiting proper types of persons for the Order and of getting a larger number of lay sympathisers, if the educational effort was not confined to novices but was also extended to the whole community. Buddhism therefore threw itself heart and soul into the cause of the general education of the whole community from about the beginning of the Christian era. It may be pointed out that lay students were admitted in ‘external’ monastic schools of Christianity, ‘internal’ schools being reserved for those who intended to join the order. Jesuits also used to admit lay pupils, when space permitted the step.¹ The Rise of Public Educational Institutes :— For a long time education was imparted by individual teachers in ancient India on their own private initiative and responsibility. The rise of organised public educational institutions may be justly attributed to the influence of Buddhism. This was but natural ; Buddhist monasteries already existed as corporate bodies : when they developed into educational centres, they naturally became corporate educational institu- tions. Temple colleges of Hinduism probably owed their inspiration to the monastic colleges of Buddhism. In the heyday of Buddhism India was studded with monasteries, and about 10 per cent of them at least used to impart higher education. An account of the more important of these institutions has already been given in Chapter V. Some of these monastic colleges H. Staunton, Great Schools, Intro. p. xv., Quick, Essays, p. 39.

230 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. like those of Nālandā, Valabhi and Vikramaśilā became international centres of learning and spread the fame of Indian education in Central and Eastern Asia. Nālandā could get an endowment even from a king of distant Java. Kings and merchant-princes in India vied with each other in giving rich endowments to these famous centres of education, and they in turn used to give not only free tuition but also free food and clothing, certainly to monks and probably to lay students also. How these institutions were organsied and managed has been already explained in connection with the account of the Nālandā Univer- sity (pp. 114-123). Buddhist monasteries were either independent and self-sufficient townships or situated on the outskirts of towns and villages. They therefore enjoyed the advantage of a quiet atmosphere. Non-sectarian and comprehensive Courses :— Though organised and managed by Buddhists, monastic colleges were neither sectarian in their outlook nor purely theological in their courses. Buddhist philo- sophy naturally played an important part in their scheme of education, but adequate attention was also given to the study of the religion and philosophy of the different sects in Hinduism and Jainism. More than two fifth of the time of Yuan Chwang was spent in studying Hindu religion and philosophy in Buddhist monasteries in India. ( Nor was the education confined only to theology, philosophy and logic. Sanskrit literature, astronomy-cum-astrology, medicine and works on law, polity and administration were also taught for the benefit of lay students in order to enable them to get government service or follow useful and learned professions in society. 1 Books being fragile and costly, students were naturally encouraged to commit

X] CONTRIBUTION OF THE BUDDHISM 231 important texts to memory ; this stood them in good stead in debates and controversies. But Buddhist education was far from being mere cramming of texts. Reasoning and analysis formed an important part in the method of teaching ; what critical foreign students like Yuan Chwang and I-tsing admired in their Indian teachers was not their keen memory, which stored numberless texts, but their remarkable powers of ex- planation and exposition. Individual attention was paid to students ; at Nālandā each teacher had not more than ten students under his charge. Female Education : Buddhist nunneries went out of vogue from about the 4th century A. D.; so at the time when Buddhist monasteries had developed into colleges of international reputation, women were not receiving any advantages of the education imparted in them. Their marriages were at that time taking place very early. In the early history of Buddhism however, the permission given to women to enter the Order gave a fairly good impetus to the cause of female education, especially in aristo- cratic and commercial sections of society. A large number of ladies from these circles joined the Order and became life-long students of religion and philosophy. Their example must have given an indirect encouragement to the spread of education among lay women as well. Buddhism and Primary Education: It is well known that in modern Burma Buddhist monasteries afford valuable help in spreading literacy, as a result of which the percentage of male literate population in that country was as high as 38 even in 1902. It is therefore not improbable that what Buddhist monasteries are doing in modern Burma

232 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. may have been done by them in ancient India as well. In its early history, however, there is no evidence to show that Buddhism was interesting itself in education of laymen. With the rise of the Mahāyāna school in the early centuries of the Christian era a great change took place, and Buddhist monasteries began to undertake systematically the education of laymen as well. The accounts of the Chinese travellers, however, leave the impression that Buddhist monasteries were mainly concerned with higher education. It is however not improbable that the Chinese travellers may not have referred to their work in the sphere of primary education, because they were not interested in it. We must further remember that primary education was a more integral part of higher education than is the case now, and so could not have been altogether neglected by the teachers engaged in higher education. Secular students, who used to serve their monk teachers as pages giving them water, food, etc., appear from I-tsing's account to have been students of primary rather than secondary education.¹ We may therefore conclude that in smaller monasteries where higher education was not imparted, monks may have engaged themselves in primary education. There is however no definite evidence on the point. Conclusion :—It will thus be seen that Buddhism may well be proud of its contribution to the cause of education in ancient India. Its colleges threw their doors open to all, irrespective of any considerations of caste or country. The rise of organised public educational institutions may be justly attributed to its influence. It raised the international status of

1. Takakusu, pp. 105-6.

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 233 India by the efficiency of its higher education, which attracted students from distant countries like Korea, China, Tibet and Java. The cultural sympathy which the countries in eastern Asia feel for India even today is entirely due to the work of the famous Buddhist colleges of ancient India. If some of the important lost texts can be reconstructed with the help of their Chinese translations, the credit must be given to Buddhist colleges, which enabled Chinese students to get their copies. Buddhist education also helped the development of Hindu logic and philosophy by initiating and encouraging comparative study. In the period of its early history, it championed the cause of education through the mother tongue; later on however it could not resist the charm and influence of Sanskrit and began to impart education through that language. SECTION B. PERIOD-WISE SURVEY OF ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION. Four Historical Periods : We now proceed to take a bird's eye view of the general condition of edu- cation in the different periods of ancient Indian history. We shall divide it into four periods for the purpose of of our survey. The first period will be from pre-his- toric times to c. 1000 B.C. It may be conveniently described as the Vedic age, as most of the Vedic litera- ture was composed during this period. The second period will extend from c. 1000 B.C. to c. 200 B.C. It may be described as the age of the Upanishads, the Sutras and the epics, as these works can be asigned to this period. The Bārhadrathas, the Śiśunāgas, the Nandas and the Mauryas were the leading political

234 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. powers of this period. and so the age may be con- veniently described as the age of the Nandas and Mauryas. The third period will extend from c. 200 B.C. to c. 500 A.D. It may be described as the age of the Dharmaśāstra, as most of the leading works on this subject were written during this period. It can also be described as the age of the Śuṅgas and the Sātavāhanas, the Vākāṭakas and the Guptas, as these were the leading political powers of the period. The fourth period will extend from c. 500 A.D, to c. 1200 A.D. It may be described as the age of the Purāṇas and digests (Nibandhas), as society was guided mainly by the theories and practices recommended in these works. Politically India was divided into many small kingdoms during this age. Kings Harsha and Bhoja were the most prominent rulers during this period. The age therefore may be described as the age of Harsha and Bhoja. We shall now proceed to describe the condition of education as a whole in each of these four periods. THE VEDIC PERIOD : (upto c. 1,000 B.C.) Condition of Culture and Education : This age marked the beginning of Indian culture, literature and science and so naturally not much progress was made in the different departments of knowledge. Its literary and scientific achievements were naturally less dazzling and comprehensive than those of the succeeding age. People of this period however had a very keen desire to make progress in the realm of knowledge. They had realised that it was intellectual efficiency and equipment that was most essential for progress in culture and knowledge. It was emphasised that gods

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 235 would be friends of only those who are wise and learned. Those only were regarded as learned who could not only recite the texts but also understand and interpret them. Every householder of the age therefore natu- rally regarded the education of his children as a sacred duty. No distinction was made in this connection between boys and girls; the education of both received the same attention at least upto the higher stage. Ordinarily the guardian discharged his duty to teach his wards so regularly and successfully that no necessity was felt for a long time either for the professional teacher or for the public school. Secular literature was yet to be developed and so the literary course was predominently religious. People however had an open, free and enquiring mind and were eager to explore new realms of knowledge. Great emphasis was laid on the proper development of debating powers ; boys and girls who were successful in debates were highly honoured. Education however did not produce mere talkers but transformed its recepients into man of action as well. This would become quite clear from the successful manner in which the Aryans of the age spread their culture and extended their political influ- ence. The Aryan community was a compact and homogenous one during this period, and there was not much difference in the educational level of the diffe- rent classes. Priests however generally used to speci- alise in literary and religious education. Warriors and agriculturists also received some literary education, but it was naturally not so deep or wide as that of the priests or the poets. They used to devote the greater part of their educational course in mastering the art of war, or the processes of agriculture or the methods of arts and crafts. The followers of the latter were held in high esteem : some of them like Aśvins and

236 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Ribhus were even deified. The educational system of the age was successful in forming character, developing personality, promoting the progress of different branches of knowledge and achieving social efficiency and happiness. THE UPANISHAD-SŪTRA PERIOD. (c. 1000 B.C. to c. 200 B.C.) General Condition of the Age : This period can justly be regarded as the most creative period of Hindu culture and literature, arts and sciences. The founda- tions of whatever is the best in Hindu culture and glorious in Hindu achievements were laid down during this period. Metaphysics made remarkable progress, as is evidenced by the Upanishadic, Jain and Bauddha works ; the foundations of almost all the later systems of philosophy were also laid down. Philology and grammar were well developed and the literary acti- vity in the legal literature commenced. Speculations in the sphere of political thought were original and fruit- ful. Astronomy and mathematics, medicine and sur- gery, mining and metallurgy began to be cultivated and sculpture and architecture recorded remarkable pro- gress, especially towards the end of the period. Effort was also made to popularise culture and knowledge by transforming the epic of the Bhārata war into an encyclopædia of religion and ethics. The Condition of Education : These manifold achievements in different spheres became possible be- cause Indians had still a free open and enquiring mind and were making strenuous efforts to extend the bounds of knowledge and to ensure its transmission to posterity. With a view to enlist the help of the whole society for this work, Upanayana ritual was made

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 237 obligatory for the whole Aryan community at about the beginning of this period. This gave a great impetus to the spread both of literacy and higher education. As learning became more and more exten- sive in course of time, education in the family became impracticable, and society began to encourage distin- guished scholars to become regular teachers. They used to organise private schools for higher studies, relying mainly on the voluntary contributions of students taking their advantage. Brahmacharya dis- cipline was still rigorous, but towards the end of the period the marriageable age of girls began to be gra- dually lowered, which adversely affected female education. During the earlier part of this period, however, there was no dearth of women philosophers and scholars, some of whom used to organise schools and hostels for girls. Co-education was however not unknown. Majority of girls received their education at home, as was the case with boys also during the earlier period. The educational system paid as much attention to the cultivation of the Vedic studies as to that of grammar and philology, mathematics and astronomy, epic and legal literature. Professions be- came specialised towards the end of this period and society began to feel it advantageous that they should become hereditary in order to encourage further effi- ciency. The ordinary soldier or agriculturist used however to receive a fair amount of cultural education. The training imparted to the doctor and the sculptor was fairly practical and efficient, and the average in- telligence of the artisan class was fairly high. The killed worker was respected by society. Education vas regarded as a serious proposition and society was anxious that its benefits should be extended to as large a class as possible. Various steps were being proposed

238 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. and adopted to see that students did not stop their studies at the end of their courses. Educational sys- tem continued to be successful in forming character, building up personality, extending the bounds of know- ledge and preserving the heritage of the past. It undoubtedly promoted social happiness and efficiency ; it enabled India to be at the vanguard of progress in the contemporary world and repel and subjugate the powerful Greek enemy. THE AGE OF THE DHARMAŚĀSTRA (c. 200 B. C. to c. 500 A. D.) Characteristics of the Age: This period may be described as the age of critical reflection and specialisation. The achievements of the preceding creative period were critically examined and special systems like the Sāṁkhya and the Yoga, the Nyāya and the Vaiśeshika, the Vedānta and the Mahāyāna Buddhism were evolved; this undoubtedly marked considerable progress in critical thought. The creative vein however was still active, though in a less marked degree than before. Its activity was particularly noteworthy in the realm of classical literature and sacred law, painting and sculpture, mathematics and astronomy. A considerable part of the religious literature was now canonised, but Hindus still had an open, free and enquiring mind. Philosophical systems continued to be called orthodox, though they had no place in them even for God. Heterodox systems like the Jainism and the Buddhism were studied by the Hindus and the theories and dogmas of Hinduism were analysed and examined by the Jains and the Buddhists; this led to considerable progress in logic and meta- physics. Greeks were no doubt regarded as unholy

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 239 foreigners (Mlechchhas), but nevertheless their achieve- ments in the realm of sculpture, coinage and astronomy were carefully studied and assimilated, which led to considerable progress in all these sciences. The Condition of Education : There was however a distinctive setback to the cause of education as a whole during this period. Child marriages became the order of the day towards the end of the period, and so female education suffered very considerably. Only daughters of high class families used to receive education during this period. The lowering of the marriageable age of girls naturally involved the corresponding lowering of the marriageable age of boys. Brahmacharya discipline consequently became slack and nominal and towards the end of this period ; the educational system could produce only a limited number of young men possessing a developed person- ality, characterised by self-confidence and self reliance. During this period Upanayana of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas first became a mere formality. This development gave a severe blow to the general and cultural education of the warrior and the farmer, the trader and the artisan, and this reduced their general efficiency. Their education gradually began to become too much specialised and narrow. The same defect arose in the course of time in liberal education also. There was too much of specialisation in logic and philosophy, astronomy and mathematics ; there was no broad-based secondary course of education. The educational system was still able to promote social efficiency and happiness and secure the preservation and spread of national culture ; it enabled society to absorb and assimilate a number of foreign tribes whom it could not drive out by military force. Towards

140 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. the end of this period the higher education of the cultured classes received a great impetus and en- couragement by the rise of organised public schools and colleges. On account of the liberal support which these institutions received from the state and society, they were able to impart free education. Several colleges for higher education became famous centres of education, which in the course of time began to artract students from abroad as well. The training in practical sciences like sculpture and architecture, medicine and matallurgy was still very efficient, if somewhat narrow. THE AGE OF THE PURĀṆAS AND NIBANDHAS. (C. 500 A. D.—1200 A. D ) Educational Achievements of the Age :—India continued to enjoy the reputation of an international centre of education during this period also. Down to c. 900 A. D. Tibetan and Chinese students continued to flock in her eastern Universities, and her doctors used to be summoned in Western Asia for curing royal patients and organising state hospitals. Education had not become mere book learning ; Indian teachers excited admiration of foreign students by their remark- able powers of explanation and exposition. Graduates of this period were remarkable for their logical acumen and mastery in Sanskrit, though the latter was no longer the spoken tongue. Facilities for free higher education continued to be ample ; if with the decline of Buddhism the number of monastic colleges decreas- ed, the loss was more than compensated by the rise of numerous temple colleges. Brahmacharya discipline no doubt became nominal owing to early marriages ; even married students, however, showed commendable per- severance in pursuing protracted courses of studies. Poor

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 241 students continued to maintain themselves by begging if necessary ; the number of teachers eager to follow the high code of the profession, which enjoined free tuition, still continued to be very large. Society's earnestness for education was thus remarkable. **Educational Defects of the Age :-**Though thus higher education continued to prosper, the education of the masses suffered during this period. Upanayana now completely disappeared from Kshatriyas and Vaishyas ; this gave a serious blow to their cultural and literary education, reduced the percentage of literacy among them and made their education very narrow. Useful arts and professions began to be regarded as plebian and were boycotted by the higher sections of Brahmanas ; as the services of the best intellect in society were no longer available for the development of arts and crafts, they ceased to make any progress worth the name. Growing orthodoxy of the age disapproved of dissection and condemned the pursuit of agriculture on the ground that it involved killing of insects at the time of ploughing. Medical education in the course of time became less efficient ; surgery went out of vogue and agriculture became a neg- lected and plebian profession. The marriageable age of girls was further lowered during this period ; girls were ordinarily married at the age of 10 or 11. This natural- ly gave a death blow to the female education. A few ladies no doubt appear as poetesses during this period ; they were however exceptions rather than the rule. Education could not reach the masses as the medium of higher instruction was Sanskrit, which was no longer the spoken tongue. No serious or concerted effort was made to develop literature in vernaculars in order to facilitate the infiltration of knowledge to the 16

242 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. masses. In the sphere of higher education specialisation was carried to too great an extreme ; the logician, the mathematician and the rhetorist, for instance, did not possess much knowledge of the problems and achi- evements of one another. The preservation of ancient literature and culture was the main concern of the educational system ; it was unable to produce many scholars who could substantially enrich it. The creative vein in the Hindu intellect could still be seen in the realm of poetics. and to a less extent, in those of philosophy, literature and astronomy. It was how- ever quite feeble, compared to its strength and achieve- ments in the preceding ages. The situation deteriorat- ed further by the growing self-conceitedness of the scholars of the age and their refusal to benefit by the knowledge and experience of outsiders. They had no longer a free, open and enquiring mind ; they would refuse to accept what was not in consonance with the views of sacred scriptures. This stood in the way of progress in sciences like astronomy and medicine, history and geography. During the medieval times great importance was attached by Indian Pandits, as by Jesuitical scholars, to the cleverness and skill in mere wordy warfare ; a person was hailed as a great scholar if he could perceive distinctions where none existed and silence his opponent by a brilliant display of the resources of a well trained memory. Depth of scholarship thus often went unrecognised and shallow and unscrupulous debators could often pose as great scholars. The general state of affairs regarding education further deteriorated during the period 1200-1800 A. D. owing to the growing impoverishment of Hindu society and the withdrawal of active state encouragement to its educational system during the period of Muslim ascendancy.

Chapter XI. ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES. ACHIEVEMENTS—The aims of infusion of piety and formation of character fully achieved—Testimony of foreign writers and travel- lers—Success in developing personality, preserving and spreading culture and literature and promoting social efficiency and happiness. DEFECTS & LIMITATIONS: Hold of religion leads to the neglect of secular studies and discouragement of rationalism in later times— The case in Europe the same—Hindu intellect ceases to be creative and assimilative and becomes receptive and imitative in later times— consequent adverse effect on education—Arts and crafts regarded plebian in later times—Education of masses neglected—Neglect of vernaculars in later times—Depth at the cost of breadth—No broad- based course including grammar, literature, mathematics, history and geography for the average student—Most defects arise in medieval times—A general estimate of Ancient Indian Education. Introduction : We shall devote this concluding chapter to the purpose of giving a critical estimate of ancient Indian educational system by discussing its achievements and failures. We have already made some general observations in this connection in the preceding pages ; we shall here discuss the subject in a connected and comprehensive manner. We shall first proceed to ascertain how far the aims and ideals of the educational system, referred to in Chap. I, were actually realised in practice. This will to a great extent enable us to form its just estimate. Infusion of Piety and Formation of Character : We have seen already how infusion of a spirit of piety and the formation of character were the first two important aims of the educational system. There can be no doubt that piety and religiousness are more characteristic of Hindu society than of any other community. The success of the educational system

244 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. in moulding and forming character was also very remarkable, as proved by the testimony of a number of foreign observers, belonging to different centuries, creeds and countries, who had no particular reason to pass flattering remarks about Indian character. Testimony of Greeks : Among these foreign observers, the Greeks are chronologically the earliest (c. 300 B. C.). Politically they were not the allies but the opponents of the Hindus. They have made a few caustic remarks about some aspects of their culture, but they have candidly noted the high impression that the Hindu character and veracity produced on their mind. 'Indians have never been convicted of lying. Truth and virtue they hold in high esteem' says Megasthenes in one place$^1$. This state- ment could not have been literally true, but it shows that the cases of cheating and swindling must have been comparatively few in society. Strabo and Megasthenes have further pointed out that law suits among the Indians were rare owing to their frank dealing. "They are not litigous. Witnesses and seals are not necessary when a man makes a deposit, he acts in trust. Their houses are usually unguarded$^2$." A Chinese Tribute : Yuan Chwang pays an equally high compliment to the Indian character during the 7th century A.D. He has carefully noted the weak and strong points in the character of the peoples of different districts ; but while summing up his impressions of the Indian character as a whole, he says "They (i.e. Indians) are of hasty and irresolute temperament, but of pure moral principles. They will not take anything wrongfully and they yield more than fairness

1. Megasthenes, Fragment 35.
2. Ibid.