प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 233 India by the efficiency of its higher education, which attracted students from distant countries like Korea, China, Tibet and Java. The cultural sympathy which the countries in eastern Asia feel for India even today is entirely due to the work of the famous Buddhist colleges of ancient India. If some of the important lost texts can be reconstructed with the help of their Chinese translations, the credit must be given to Buddhist colleges, which enabled Chinese students to get their copies. Buddhist education also helped the development of Hindu logic and philosophy by initiating and encouraging comparative study. In the period of its early history, it championed the cause of education through the mother tongue; later on however it could not resist the charm and influence of Sanskrit and began to impart education through that language. SECTION B. PERIOD-WISE SURVEY OF ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION. Four Historical Periods : We now proceed to take a bird's eye view of the general condition of edu- cation in the different periods of ancient Indian history. We shall divide it into four periods for the purpose of of our survey. The first period will be from pre-his- toric times to c. 1000 B.C. It may be conveniently described as the Vedic age, as most of the Vedic litera- ture was composed during this period. The second period will extend from c. 1000 B.C. to c. 200 B.C. It may be described as the age of the Upanishads, the Sutras and the epics, as these works can be asigned to this period. The Bārhadrathas, the Śiśunāgas, the Nandas and the Mauryas were the leading political

234 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. powers of this period. and so the age may be con- veniently described as the age of the Nandas and Mauryas. The third period will extend from c. 200 B.C. to c. 500 A.D. It may be described as the age of the Dharmaśāstra, as most of the leading works on this subject were written during this period. It can also be described as the age of the Śuṅgas and the Sātavāhanas, the Vākāṭakas and the Guptas, as these were the leading political powers of the period. The fourth period will extend from c. 500 A.D, to c. 1200 A.D. It may be described as the age of the Purāṇas and digests (Nibandhas), as society was guided mainly by the theories and practices recommended in these works. Politically India was divided into many small kingdoms during this age. Kings Harsha and Bhoja were the most prominent rulers during this period. The age therefore may be described as the age of Harsha and Bhoja. We shall now proceed to describe the condition of education as a whole in each of these four periods. THE VEDIC PERIOD : (upto c. 1,000 B.C.) Condition of Culture and Education : This age marked the beginning of Indian culture, literature and science and so naturally not much progress was made in the different departments of knowledge. Its literary and scientific achievements were naturally less dazzling and comprehensive than those of the succeeding age. People of this period however had a very keen desire to make progress in the realm of knowledge. They had realised that it was intellectual efficiency and equipment that was most essential for progress in culture and knowledge. It was emphasised that gods

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 235 would be friends of only those who are wise and learned. Those only were regarded as learned who could not only recite the texts but also understand and interpret them. Every householder of the age therefore natu- rally regarded the education of his children as a sacred duty. No distinction was made in this connection between boys and girls; the education of both received the same attention at least upto the higher stage. Ordinarily the guardian discharged his duty to teach his wards so regularly and successfully that no necessity was felt for a long time either for the professional teacher or for the public school. Secular literature was yet to be developed and so the literary course was predominently religious. People however had an open, free and enquiring mind and were eager to explore new realms of knowledge. Great emphasis was laid on the proper development of debating powers ; boys and girls who were successful in debates were highly honoured. Education however did not produce mere talkers but transformed its recepients into man of action as well. This would become quite clear from the successful manner in which the Aryans of the age spread their culture and extended their political influ- ence. The Aryan community was a compact and homogenous one during this period, and there was not much difference in the educational level of the diffe- rent classes. Priests however generally used to speci- alise in literary and religious education. Warriors and agriculturists also received some literary education, but it was naturally not so deep or wide as that of the priests or the poets. They used to devote the greater part of their educational course in mastering the art of war, or the processes of agriculture or the methods of arts and crafts. The followers of the latter were held in high esteem : some of them like Aśvins and

236 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Ribhus were even deified. The educational system of the age was successful in forming character, developing personality, promoting the progress of different branches of knowledge and achieving social efficiency and happiness. THE UPANISHAD-SŪTRA PERIOD. (c. 1000 B.C. to c. 200 B.C.) General Condition of the Age : This period can justly be regarded as the most creative period of Hindu culture and literature, arts and sciences. The founda- tions of whatever is the best in Hindu culture and glorious in Hindu achievements were laid down during this period. Metaphysics made remarkable progress, as is evidenced by the Upanishadic, Jain and Bauddha works ; the foundations of almost all the later systems of philosophy were also laid down. Philology and grammar were well developed and the literary acti- vity in the legal literature commenced. Speculations in the sphere of political thought were original and fruit- ful. Astronomy and mathematics, medicine and sur- gery, mining and metallurgy began to be cultivated and sculpture and architecture recorded remarkable pro- gress, especially towards the end of the period. Effort was also made to popularise culture and knowledge by transforming the epic of the Bhārata war into an encyclopædia of religion and ethics. The Condition of Education : These manifold achievements in different spheres became possible be- cause Indians had still a free open and enquiring mind and were making strenuous efforts to extend the bounds of knowledge and to ensure its transmission to posterity. With a view to enlist the help of the whole society for this work, Upanayana ritual was made

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 237 obligatory for the whole Aryan community at about the beginning of this period. This gave a great impetus to the spread both of literacy and higher education. As learning became more and more exten- sive in course of time, education in the family became impracticable, and society began to encourage distin- guished scholars to become regular teachers. They used to organise private schools for higher studies, relying mainly on the voluntary contributions of students taking their advantage. Brahmacharya dis- cipline was still rigorous, but towards the end of the period the marriageable age of girls began to be gra- dually lowered, which adversely affected female education. During the earlier part of this period, however, there was no dearth of women philosophers and scholars, some of whom used to organise schools and hostels for girls. Co-education was however not unknown. Majority of girls received their education at home, as was the case with boys also during the earlier period. The educational system paid as much attention to the cultivation of the Vedic studies as to that of grammar and philology, mathematics and astronomy, epic and legal literature. Professions be- came specialised towards the end of this period and society began to feel it advantageous that they should become hereditary in order to encourage further effi- ciency. The ordinary soldier or agriculturist used however to receive a fair amount of cultural education. The training imparted to the doctor and the sculptor was fairly practical and efficient, and the average in- telligence of the artisan class was fairly high. The killed worker was respected by society. Education vas regarded as a serious proposition and society was anxious that its benefits should be extended to as large a class as possible. Various steps were being proposed

238 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. and adopted to see that students did not stop their studies at the end of their courses. Educational sys- tem continued to be successful in forming character, building up personality, extending the bounds of know- ledge and preserving the heritage of the past. It undoubtedly promoted social happiness and efficiency ; it enabled India to be at the vanguard of progress in the contemporary world and repel and subjugate the powerful Greek enemy. THE AGE OF THE DHARMAŚĀSTRA (c. 200 B. C. to c. 500 A. D.) Characteristics of the Age: This period may be described as the age of critical reflection and specialisation. The achievements of the preceding creative period were critically examined and special systems like the Sāṁkhya and the Yoga, the Nyāya and the Vaiśeshika, the Vedānta and the Mahāyāna Buddhism were evolved; this undoubtedly marked considerable progress in critical thought. The creative vein however was still active, though in a less marked degree than before. Its activity was particularly noteworthy in the realm of classical literature and sacred law, painting and sculpture, mathematics and astronomy. A considerable part of the religious literature was now canonised, but Hindus still had an open, free and enquiring mind. Philosophical systems continued to be called orthodox, though they had no place in them even for God. Heterodox systems like the Jainism and the Buddhism were studied by the Hindus and the theories and dogmas of Hinduism were analysed and examined by the Jains and the Buddhists; this led to considerable progress in logic and meta- physics. Greeks were no doubt regarded as unholy

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 239 foreigners (Mlechchhas), but nevertheless their achieve- ments in the realm of sculpture, coinage and astronomy were carefully studied and assimilated, which led to considerable progress in all these sciences. The Condition of Education : There was however a distinctive setback to the cause of education as a whole during this period. Child marriages became the order of the day towards the end of the period, and so female education suffered very considerably. Only daughters of high class families used to receive education during this period. The lowering of the marriageable age of girls naturally involved the corresponding lowering of the marriageable age of boys. Brahmacharya discipline consequently became slack and nominal and towards the end of this period ; the educational system could produce only a limited number of young men possessing a developed person- ality, characterised by self-confidence and self reliance. During this period Upanayana of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas first became a mere formality. This development gave a severe blow to the general and cultural education of the warrior and the farmer, the trader and the artisan, and this reduced their general efficiency. Their education gradually began to become too much specialised and narrow. The same defect arose in the course of time in liberal education also. There was too much of specialisation in logic and philosophy, astronomy and mathematics ; there was no broad-based secondary course of education. The educational system was still able to promote social efficiency and happiness and secure the preservation and spread of national culture ; it enabled society to absorb and assimilate a number of foreign tribes whom it could not drive out by military force. Towards

140 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. the end of this period the higher education of the cultured classes received a great impetus and en- couragement by the rise of organised public schools and colleges. On account of the liberal support which these institutions received from the state and society, they were able to impart free education. Several colleges for higher education became famous centres of education, which in the course of time began to artract students from abroad as well. The training in practical sciences like sculpture and architecture, medicine and matallurgy was still very efficient, if somewhat narrow. THE AGE OF THE PURĀṆAS AND NIBANDHAS. (C. 500 A. D.—1200 A. D ) Educational Achievements of the Age :—India continued to enjoy the reputation of an international centre of education during this period also. Down to c. 900 A. D. Tibetan and Chinese students continued to flock in her eastern Universities, and her doctors used to be summoned in Western Asia for curing royal patients and organising state hospitals. Education had not become mere book learning ; Indian teachers excited admiration of foreign students by their remark- able powers of explanation and exposition. Graduates of this period were remarkable for their logical acumen and mastery in Sanskrit, though the latter was no longer the spoken tongue. Facilities for free higher education continued to be ample ; if with the decline of Buddhism the number of monastic colleges decreas- ed, the loss was more than compensated by the rise of numerous temple colleges. Brahmacharya discipline no doubt became nominal owing to early marriages ; even married students, however, showed commendable per- severance in pursuing protracted courses of studies. Poor

X] PERIOD-WISE SURVEY 241 students continued to maintain themselves by begging if necessary ; the number of teachers eager to follow the high code of the profession, which enjoined free tuition, still continued to be very large. Society's earnestness for education was thus remarkable. **Educational Defects of the Age :-**Though thus higher education continued to prosper, the education of the masses suffered during this period. Upanayana now completely disappeared from Kshatriyas and Vaishyas ; this gave a serious blow to their cultural and literary education, reduced the percentage of literacy among them and made their education very narrow. Useful arts and professions began to be regarded as plebian and were boycotted by the higher sections of Brahmanas ; as the services of the best intellect in society were no longer available for the development of arts and crafts, they ceased to make any progress worth the name. Growing orthodoxy of the age disapproved of dissection and condemned the pursuit of agriculture on the ground that it involved killing of insects at the time of ploughing. Medical education in the course of time became less efficient ; surgery went out of vogue and agriculture became a neg- lected and plebian profession. The marriageable age of girls was further lowered during this period ; girls were ordinarily married at the age of 10 or 11. This natural- ly gave a death blow to the female education. A few ladies no doubt appear as poetesses during this period ; they were however exceptions rather than the rule. Education could not reach the masses as the medium of higher instruction was Sanskrit, which was no longer the spoken tongue. No serious or concerted effort was made to develop literature in vernaculars in order to facilitate the infiltration of knowledge to the 16

242 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. masses. In the sphere of higher education specialisation was carried to too great an extreme ; the logician, the mathematician and the rhetorist, for instance, did not possess much knowledge of the problems and achi- evements of one another. The preservation of ancient literature and culture was the main concern of the educational system ; it was unable to produce many scholars who could substantially enrich it. The creative vein in the Hindu intellect could still be seen in the realm of poetics. and to a less extent, in those of philosophy, literature and astronomy. It was how- ever quite feeble, compared to its strength and achieve- ments in the preceding ages. The situation deteriorat- ed further by the growing self-conceitedness of the scholars of the age and their refusal to benefit by the knowledge and experience of outsiders. They had no longer a free, open and enquiring mind ; they would refuse to accept what was not in consonance with the views of sacred scriptures. This stood in the way of progress in sciences like astronomy and medicine, history and geography. During the medieval times great importance was attached by Indian Pandits, as by Jesuitical scholars, to the cleverness and skill in mere wordy warfare ; a person was hailed as a great scholar if he could perceive distinctions where none existed and silence his opponent by a brilliant display of the resources of a well trained memory. Depth of scholarship thus often went unrecognised and shallow and unscrupulous debators could often pose as great scholars. The general state of affairs regarding education further deteriorated during the period 1200-1800 A. D. owing to the growing impoverishment of Hindu society and the withdrawal of active state encouragement to its educational system during the period of Muslim ascendancy.

Chapter XI. ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES. ACHIEVEMENTS—The aims of infusion of piety and formation of character fully achieved—Testimony of foreign writers and travel- lers—Success in developing personality, preserving and spreading culture and literature and promoting social efficiency and happiness. DEFECTS & LIMITATIONS: Hold of religion leads to the neglect of secular studies and discouragement of rationalism in later times— The case in Europe the same—Hindu intellect ceases to be creative and assimilative and becomes receptive and imitative in later times— consequent adverse effect on education—Arts and crafts regarded plebian in later times—Education of masses neglected—Neglect of vernaculars in later times—Depth at the cost of breadth—No broad- based course including grammar, literature, mathematics, history and geography for the average student—Most defects arise in medieval times—A general estimate of Ancient Indian Education. Introduction : We shall devote this concluding chapter to the purpose of giving a critical estimate of ancient Indian educational system by discussing its achievements and failures. We have already made some general observations in this connection in the preceding pages ; we shall here discuss the subject in a connected and comprehensive manner. We shall first proceed to ascertain how far the aims and ideals of the educational system, referred to in Chap. I, were actually realised in practice. This will to a great extent enable us to form its just estimate. Infusion of Piety and Formation of Character : We have seen already how infusion of a spirit of piety and the formation of character were the first two important aims of the educational system. There can be no doubt that piety and religiousness are more characteristic of Hindu society than of any other community. The success of the educational system

244 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. in moulding and forming character was also very remarkable, as proved by the testimony of a number of foreign observers, belonging to different centuries, creeds and countries, who had no particular reason to pass flattering remarks about Indian character. Testimony of Greeks : Among these foreign observers, the Greeks are chronologically the earliest (c. 300 B. C.). Politically they were not the allies but the opponents of the Hindus. They have made a few caustic remarks about some aspects of their culture, but they have candidly noted the high impression that the Hindu character and veracity produced on their mind. 'Indians have never been convicted of lying. Truth and virtue they hold in high esteem' says Megasthenes in one place$^1$. This state- ment could not have been literally true, but it shows that the cases of cheating and swindling must have been comparatively few in society. Strabo and Megasthenes have further pointed out that law suits among the Indians were rare owing to their frank dealing. "They are not litigous. Witnesses and seals are not necessary when a man makes a deposit, he acts in trust. Their houses are usually unguarded$^2$." A Chinese Tribute : Yuan Chwang pays an equally high compliment to the Indian character during the 7th century A.D. He has carefully noted the weak and strong points in the character of the peoples of different districts ; but while summing up his impressions of the Indian character as a whole, he says "They (i.e. Indians) are of hasty and irresolute temperament, but of pure moral principles. They will not take anything wrongfully and they yield more than fairness

1. Megasthenes, Fragment 35.
2. Ibid.

XI] ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES 245 requires. They fear for retribution for sins in other lives and make light of what conduct produces in this life. They do not practice deceit and they keep their sworn obligations."¹ Vast majority of Indians in Yuan Chwang's time did not share his religious beliefs and practices and yet they receive the above high compliment from the Chinese pilgrim. Arab and Italian Testimony : Al Idrisi's im- pressions of the Hindu character in western India during the 10th century A.D. are similar to those of Yuan Chwang's. Though a Muslim, he says of the Hindus, 'The Indians are naturally inclined to justice and never depart from it in their actions. Their good faith, honesty and fidelity to engagements are well known and they are so famous for these qualities that people flock to their country from every side ; hence the country is flourishing and their conditon pros- perous.² "In the thirteenth century Marco Polo also was impressed very highly by the character of the Brahmanas of Western India. "You must know" says he, "that these Brahmanas are the best merchants in the world and the most truthful, for they would never tell a lie for anything on the earth. If a foreign merchant, who does not know the ways of the country, applies to them and entrusts his goods to them, they would take charge of these and sell them in the most zealous manner, seeking zealously the profit of the foreigner and asking no commission except what he pleases to give."³ When the morality of the trading classes is so high, the character of the average man must have been very noble. Ibn Batuta, another Muslim observer, describes the Marathas of Deogiri

1. Watters, I, p. 171.
2. Elliot, History, Vol. I, p. 88.
3. Yule, Marco Polo, Vol. II, p. 363 (Third edition).

246 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. and Nándurbar of the 14th century as 'upright, religious and trustworthy.¹ The same was the view of Abul Fazl, the minister of Akbar. Conclusion : Travellers, pilgrims and merchants are usually disposed to make caustic remarks about the culture and character of the foreigners among whom they have moved ; when so many of them belonging to different times and climes and professing different faiths agree in paying a high tribute to Indian character, we may well conclude that there is no exaggeration and that the educational system of the country had succeeded remarkably in its ideal of raising the national character to a high level. It is only after the 17th and 18th centuries A.D. that we come across some foreign travellers, traders, missionaries and ex-governors passing strictures upon the Hindu character. Some of them were probably misled by their prejudices, as we find their testimony contradicted by others.² It is also possible that the Hindu character may have suffered deterioration during the long spell of foreign rule in medieval times ; for successful falsehood is usually the best defence of a slave. It is however worth observing that not a single foreign observer is found passing hostile remarks about Hindu character and honesty during the ancient period of Indian history. Success in developing Personality : The deve- lopment of personality was the third aim of the educational system and let us see how far it was able to

1. Ibna Batuta, p. 228.
2. Col Sleeman, for instance, says : 'Lying between members of the same village is almost unknown.' I have had hundreds of cases before me in which a man's property, liberty and life depended upon his telling a lie, and he has refused to tell it.' Quoted by M. Muller in India, What It can teach Us, p. 50.

XI] ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES. 247 accomplish it. The available evidence is rather meagre to form a definite judgment in this connection. We come across several masterful personalities, in different walks of life in ancient India, but how far they were typical of their age we do not know. Hindu achieve- ments, however, in the different walks of life and branches of knowledge were fairly of a high order in ancient India down to the 6th century A.D., and this would hardly have been possible if the products of the educational system were not masterful personalities. Things however changed for the worse from the 6th century A. D.; Brahmacharya discipline became nominal when a vast majority of students began to marry at a very early age; growth of independent judgment became stunted with the growing veneration for the past and its time-hallowed traditions. Self- confidence and self-respect disappeared in a great measure when society suffered from the convulsions of sudden foreign invasions and long alien rule, frequently imposing a hated religion and strange culture with the aid of the sword. We must not judge the success of the ancient Indian educational system in building personality of students by the conclusions based upon its products at the advent of the British rule. Success in the Preservation and Spread of Culture and Literature : Friends and foes have alike admitted that the ancient Indian system of education has been eminently successful in its aim of the preservation of ancient literary and cultural heritage. Very few of the Vedic works have been lost. It is indeed a wonder how so vast a literature could have been preserved without the help of the art of writing for the task. Among post-Vedic works too, the number of valuable books lost is not considerable. And here also the losses would have been practically insignificant if the destruc-

248 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. tion of temples and monasteries had not taken place on a wide scale at the time of the invasions of the Mahomedans and during their subsequent long rule. The surprising amount of cultural uniformity that is to be seen even now over the length and breadth of India is mainly due to the successful preservation and spread of ancient culture and civilisation. If there are several features, common to Hindu life, all over the country, contributing to Hindu unity, the credit has to be largely given to the educational system, which has produced uniformity in the culture and outlook on life of the Hindu community. The remarkable success of Indian missionaries in spreading Indian culture in Indian Archipelago, Siam, China, Japan, Tibet, and Central Asia must be attributed to the success of the educational system in enkindling a strong zest in the minds of students for spreading the national culture and heritage far and wide, both in India and outside. Civic Responsibility and Social Efficiency and Happiness : The success of the educational system in infusing a sense of civic responsibility and promoting social efficiency and happiness, which were two of its important aims, was also remarkable. It was but natural that the educational system should have taken the help of the religious feeling and the caste discipline for infusing the sense of civic responsibility. The average man in ancient India was always loyal to the interests of his guild, village and caste. It was the success of the educational system in promoting social efficiency, which enabled Hindu society to be in the vanguard of the march of civilisation for several centuries. It is true that this ceased to be the case from about the 10th century A.D. ; but the failure during the last millennium in this connection should not blind us to the success in the preceding long period of

XI] ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES 249 more than two thousand years. We shall now proceed to discuss the causes of the decline in the educational system and point out its limitations and defects. DEFECTS AND LIMITATIONS Introduction : We shall now proceed to point out the main defects and limitations of the educational system along with their causes. The period-wise survey of the educational system, which was taken in the second section of the last chapter, must have already indicated to the reader what these defects were and how most of them arose during the latter half of the first millennium A. D. We shall discuss them in greater details now. Attention will also be drawn to some other limitations of the system, which were more or less common to almost all systems of education in ancient times and for which, therefore, the ancient Indian system alone cannot be blamed. The Hold of Religion :—Religion had an immense hold over the Hindu mind and many of the admirable features of the educational system have to be attribut- ed to this circumstance, as shown already. It did not make the educational outlook ‘otherworldly’, as is supposed in certain quarters. The ideals of the Vānaprastha and the Sanyāsa were no doubt purely spiritual, but such was not the case with the ideals of the educational system. It aimed at producing youths eminently fit to perform their civic and social duties ; if any spiritual merit for the life to come was to result from Brahmacharya, it was to be through the proper performance of duties, which however were principally determined with a view to make the student an efficient and God-fearing citizen. Secular Studies tend to be neglected :—The majority of teachers in ancient India were priests, as was the case all over the ancient world. They did

250 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. not exploit their position for promoting any selfish ends of their own, but they had the natural limitations of their class. When the even balance that was for a long time successfully held in Hindu society between the claims of religious and secular life (Dharma-Moksha versus Artha-Kāma) was disturbed, religious and semi- religious studies got undue predominance in the educational system. Secular sciences like history, economics, politics, mathematics and astronomy did not receive as much attention as theology, philosophy, ritualism and sacred law. Commerce and industry and fine and useful arts made no appreciable progress during the last 1500 years or so, because those in charge of education showed no keen interest in them. It may however be pointed out that down to the 18th century, educationalists in Europe also regarded religious studies as the most important constituents of the educa- tional course ; many of them like Franke and Comenius held that all children should be instructed above all things in the vital knowledge of God and Christ.¹ Reason not held at a Discount in early Times :— A greater defect produced by the hold of religion over the Hindu mind was the tendency to hold reason at a discount, which became prominent a few centuries after the Christian era. Such was not the case in earlier times, when society used to value intellectual freedom highly. Upanishadic thinkers have, for example, advocated bold and original theories of philosophy without showing any anxiety whatever to prove that their views were in consonance with those of the Vedic sages. In the days of the Buddha there were as many as sixty three systems of philosophy, very few of which cared to rely on Vedic authority for their premises or conclusions. Systems of philosophy like 1 Greaves, Educators, pp 72—3,

XI] ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES 251 the Sāṁkhya and the Mīmāṁsā, which did not recognise a Creator-God, were admitted within the fold of orthodoxy. Buddhism and Jainism were not summarily dismissed as athiestic or heterodox ; their scriptures were carefully studied in order to prove that their theories were unsound. For a long time society was successful in reconciling its reverence for the past with its regard for the advance of knowledge ; it used to silently abandon exploded views and quietly accept new theories and doctrines. The changed Attitude of later Times : Unfortu- nately for the progress of learning and scholarship Vedic literature was canonised some time about 600 B.C. An almost equally high reverence came to be paid to the Smṛitis and Purāṇas in course of time. The authorship of these works came to be attributed to divine or inspired agency, and it was averred that what they contained could not be false, what they opposed could not be true. Theories began to be accepted or rejected according as they were in conformity with or opposed to the statements of thesacred books on the point. Intellectual giants like Śaṅkara and Rāmānuja had to spend a disproportionate amount of time and energy to prove that their systems of philosophy were in conformity with and the natural outcomes of the Upa- nishadic hypotheses. If the hold of the Srutis and Smṛitis were not so exacting, there would have been freer development of philosophy. At any rate many of the remarkable intellects of the Middle Ages would have found it possible to write independent works on their own systems of philosophy instead of being compelled to present it unsystematically, while engaged in the ostensible task of writing commentaries on the revealed literature. Instead of Nibandha compilations, we would have possessed original Smṛitis of the later times.

252 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. A concrete Instance and its Moral: Under such circumstances, there was not much scope left for research and originality in those matters where opinions were expressed in sacred texts. A concrete case may be given to illustrate the point. In the infancy of astronomy, the eclipses were explained by the mytho- logical stories about Rāhu and Ketu attacking and temporarily overpowering the moon and the sun. It was an evil day for the advance of astronomy when this mythological version got a canonical sanction by its inclusion in the Purāṇas. Hindu astronomers like Āryabhaṭa, Brahmagupta, Varāhamihira and Bhāskarā- chārya knew the true causes of eclipses, but felt powerless to carry vigorous propaganda to explode their popular and mythological explanation canonised by the Purāṇas. Nay, Brahmagupta, with a view to win cheap popularity, went to the extent of advocating that the popular view was correct, when he knew full well that such was not the case. In Chapter I of his Brahma-siddhānta, he gives both the popular and scientific theories about the eclipses, but advocates the cause of the former. "Some people think that the eclipse is not caused by the Head (of Rāhu or Ketu). This, however, is a foolish idea. The Veda, which is the word of God from the mouth of Brahman, says that the Head eclipses, likewise Manusmṛiti and Garga- saṁhitā".¹ What is, however, most lamentable is that Brahmagupta, who knew full well the real cause of eclipses, should have proceeded to condemn Āryabhaṭa, Varāhamihira, Śrīsheṇa and Vishṇuchandra for expounding the unorthodox but scientific theory that eclipses are caused by the shadow of the earth. It is important to note that Brahmagupta becomes guilty of intellectual and moral dishonesty because he was

1. As quoted by Alberuni, Vol. II, pp. 110-1. The original work has been lost.