रूपमण्डन एवं देवमूर्त्ति-प्रकरणम् (मण्डन सूत्रधार - प्राचीन मूर्तिकला एवं देव-प्रतिमा लक्षण सटीक)

( 7 ) Brahmagupta in 628 A. D., the Viṣṇudharmottara must have been compiled between 628 and 1000 A. D. Sect. III, too, is of a very miscellaneous character, treating of dancing, singing and music, sculpture and painting (the making of images of gods) and archi- tecture (construction of temples).” The Matsya-Purāṇa, the Padma-Purāṇa, the Skanda- Purāṇa and the Brahma-Purāṇa were also used for the (Śiva) Liṅga and (Viṣṇu) Śālāgrāma sections ; and passages from the Bṛhat-Saṁhitā, have been quoted verbatim, in the Adbhuta section. Another text, more sparingly consulted, is the Viśvakarma- Śāstra. This is certainly a Śilpa work of the Northern School²¹. But the work most profusely drawn upon, often verbatim, is certainly the Rūpamaṇḍana²². This may be identical with the text of the same name²³, the authorship of which is ascribed to Maṇḍana himself. 21. Haridas Mitra : Buddhāpratimālakṣaṇam. The Sārasvatī Bhavana Skt. Series, Benares ; No. 48. Introduction p. 3. Also, see Note 27. Supra. 22. T. A. Gopinatha Rao : Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. I, Part II. 23. See Section 1. Supra.

2 ON THE CANONS OF INDIAN ART. The Matsya-Purāṇa²⁴ enumerates the names of eighteen (वास्तुशास्त्रोपदेशक) Vāstuśāstropadeśakas or Masters²⁵ of the Sciences of Architecture, Sculpture and Painting, as follows :— भृगुरत्रिर्वशिष्टश्च विश्वकर्मा मयस्तथा । नारदो नग्नजिच्चैव विशालाक्षः पुरन्दरः ॥ ब्रह्मा कुमारो नन्दीशः शौनको गर्ग एव च । वासुदेवोऽनिरुद्धश्च तथा शुक्को वृहस्पतिः ( शुक्रवृहस्पती ) ॥ अष्टादशैते विख्याता वास्तुशास्त्रोपदेशकाः । संक्षेपेणोपदिष्टं यन्मनवे मत्स्यरूपिणा ॥ The Agni-Purāṇa²⁶ gives another list of 25 authoritative texts, as follows :— हयग्रीव उवाच— वैष्णवादीनां प्रतिष्ठादि वक्ष्ये ब्रह्मन् शृणुष्व मे । प्रोक्तानि पंचरात्राणि सप्तरात्राणि वै मया ॥ १ ॥ व्यस्तानि मुनिभिर्लोके पंचविंशति संख्यया । हयशीर्षं तन्ममात्रं तन्त्रं त्रैलोक्यमोहनम् ॥ २ ॥ वैभवं पौष्करं तन्त्रं प्रह्लादं गार्ग्यगालवम् । नारदीयं च संप्रश्नं शाण्डिल्यं वैश्वकं तथा ॥ ३ ॥ 24. Matsya-Pūraṇa. Ānandāśram Ed., 1907. Chapter 252. 25. See Haridas Mitra : Op. cit. 26. Agni-Purāṇa. Edited by Rajendralal Mitra. (Bibliotheca Indica). Chap. 39, v. 1-5. There are some different readings, noted in this edition :— १ श्लोके चैश्वरं तथेति ग, घ, ङ—चिह्नितपुस्तकत्रयपाठः । प्रह्लादगार्ग्यगालवं । ४ „ कापिळं इति पाठः । ५ „ तथाष्टाङ्गमिविति ख, ङ—चिह्नितपुस्तकपाठः । The texts, quoted are from P. K. Acharya : Ind. Architecture, p. 165— Edition, not noted, but seems to be corrupt. See Note 31 Infra.

( 9 ) सत्योक्तं शौनकं तन्त्रं वासिष्ठं ज्ञानसागरं । स्वायम्भुवं कपिलं च तार्क्ष्यं नारायणीयकम् ॥ ४ ॥ आत्रेयं नारसिंहाख्यमानन्दाख्यं तथारुणकम् । बौधायनं तथार्षं तु विश्वोक्तं तस्य सारतः ॥ ५ ॥ Another account given in the Viśvakarma-prakāśa²⁷, and preserved in many versions is evidently a compilation of a later date :— इति प्रोक्तं वास्तुशास्त्रं पूर्वे गर्गाय धीमते । गर्गात्पराशरः प्राप्तस्तस्मात्प्राप्तो बृहद्रथः ॥ बृहद्रथाद्विश्वकर्मा प्राप्तवान् वास्तुशास्त्रकम् । स एव विश्वकर्मा जगतो हितायाकथयत्पुनः ॥ वास्तुदेवादिषु पुनर्भूर्लोकं भक्तितोऽब्रवीत् । Among the Brāhmaṇic masters of Vāstu and Śilpa-śāstras, the names of Viśvakarman and Maya are mentioned very often. The Viṣṇudharmottaram²⁸ gives the traditional or mythical origin of the art of painting, and its canons, (i. e., Citrasūtram) :—how the sage Nārāyaṇa first painted on earth with the juice of mango leaf the figure of a superbly beautiful damsel, and for humiliating the heavenly apsarasas he invested her with life. Brought into being, on urvī, (earth) she was called Urvaśī (earth-born). The great sage having thus created the art of painting (Citra), taught Viśvakarman its canons. The Citralakṣaṇam²⁹ᵃ of Nagnajit mentions Viśvakarman, Prahlāda and Nagnajit, among the masters of painting,—after the adoration of gods and goddesses (namaskāras), and the benediction 27. Śrī-Viśvakarmaprakāśa, with Bhāṣāṭīkā—printed from the Śrī-veṅkaṭeśvara Press, Bombay ; also lithographed from Siddha-Vināyaka Yantra, Benares. See, also Notes 41, 42 post. 28. Śrī-Viṣṇudharmottaram. Part III, chap. 35. 29a. Berthold Laufer : Dokumente der indischen Kunst. Erstes Heft. Maleri : ‘Das Citralakṣaṇa’. Leipzig, 1913. D—2

( 10 ) (āśīrvacanam), the definition of the subject-matter (vastu-nirdeśa) etc., in the regular Kāvya style. An attempt may be made to render these important passages back into rhythmic Sanskrit, from the German translations in Dr. B. Laufer's admirable edition of the text—the original version of which is probably lost, though a Tibetan translation of it has fortunately been preserved²⁹ᵇ. आदौ चन्द्रमसं वन्दे महादेवं ततः परं चूडायामिन्दुशकलं मूर्ध्नि यः संबिभर्ति वै । विष्णुमथेन्द्रं सूर्यं जलाधिपाग्नी तथा वायुं ततोऽभिवन्देऽहमेष प्रजापति-विश्वकर्माणौ ॥ ततः परं नग्नजितं पादयोः प्रणतोऽस्म्यहं सर्वानपि तथाचार्यान् कृताञ्जलिपुटैः करैः । यथानुक्रमतश्चित्रशास्त्राणां वर्णमाश्रितं यथामति यथाशक्ति मया किञ्चित् प्रवक्ष्यते ॥ सम्यक् परीक्ष्य संक्षेपान्मतानि विश्वकर्म-प्रह्लाद-नग्नजितानां ततो धीमतां कृते हि जिज्ञासूनां समासाच्चित्रलक्षणं मया उक्तम् । तेनाधुना शृण्वन्तु तच्चित्रलक्षणं हि मत्तः पण्डितानां धियाम् अये ! ये निष्णाताः । The Matsya-purāṇam, the Agni-purāṇam, the Viśvakarma- prakāśa and the Bṛhat-saṃhitā, probably have handed down the northern tradition of their times. The Mānasāra³⁰ is the most complete architectural treatise 29b. These conjectural reconstructions unsatisfactory though, they might be of interest to those to whom the German and Tibetan editions are inaccessible or not sufficiently intelligible. 30. P. K. Acharya : Mānasāra. Chapters lxviii, lxx. i, ii ; also, Ibid : Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-śilpa-śāstra, pp. 164ff. "...Evidences are undoubtedly more authenticated and substantial ...regarding the connection of the Mānasāra with Matsya-purāṇa (450 A.D.) on the one hand and the Bṛhat-saṃhitā (550 A.D.) on the other....We shall be justified in placing the Mānasāra before the Bṛhat-saṃhitā and some- where close to the Matsya-purāṇa. In any event, we venture to hold that the evidences...warrant the extension of the period of Mānasāra from 500 to 700 A. D." P. K. Acharya : Op. cit., p. 198.

( 11 ) extant and of this work, we have a critical ed. It gives a list of thirty-two 32 authorities :— विश्वकर्मा च विश्वेश(शः) विश्वसारं(रः) प्रबोधकः । वृतश्चैव मयश्चैव त्वष्टा चैव मनुर्नलः ॥ ५ ॥ मानविन्मानकल्पश्च मानसारो बहुश्रुतः। प्रष्टा च मानवोधश्च विश्वबोधो ना(न)यश्च तथा ॥ ६ ॥ आदिसारो विशालश्च विश्वकाश्यप ए(श्चै)व च । वास्तुबोधो महातन्त्रो वास्तुविद्यापतिस्तथा ॥ ७ ॥ पाराशरीयकश्चैव कालयूपो महाऋषिः(हर्षिश्च) । चैत्याख्यः चितकः आ(श्रा)वर्यः साधकसारसहितः ॥ ८ ॥ भानुश्चेन्द्रश्च लोकज्ञः सौराख्यः शिल्पिवित्तमः । तदेव ( ते एव ) ऋषयः प्रोक्ता द्वात्रिंशतिः संख्यया ॥ ९ ॥ ॥ अध्यायः ६८ ॥ गङ्गाशिरःकमलभू-कमलेक्षणेन्द्र-गीर्वाण-नारदमुखैरखिलैर्मुनीन्द्रैः । प्रोक्तं समस्ततरवस्तुवि वास्तुशास्त्रं तन्मानसार-ऋषिणापि हि लक्ष्यते स्म ॥ २ ॥ ( १ अध्यायः ) संग्रहः ॥ पितामहेन्द्रप्रमुखैः समस्तैः देवैरिदं शास्त्रवरं पुरोदितम् । तस्मात्समुद्धृत्य हि मानसारं शास्त्रं लोकहितार्थमेतत् ॥ ५८ ॥ अध्यायः ७० ॥ The list in the Agni-purāṇam as well as in the Mānasāra is confusing and apparently corrupt. There are linguistic and other difficulties in the readings of the Agni-purāṇa list³¹ of 25 authorities ; on the other hand, all these are said to be Pañcarātra and Saptarātra works—probably both classes were Vaiṣṇava, if the latter school at all existed. The Mānasāra list³² is equally 31. The reading in the Agni-purāṇam, chapter 39, v. 4, should be कापिलं but the metre does not allow it. But in v. 5, we must read—आत्रेयं नारसिंहाव्यमानन्दाख्यं तथाऽऽरुणम्। Or ०ख्यं लाऽऽरुणकम्। and not ०ख्यं तयारुणकम्। See Note 26. Supra. The list there does not seem to contain (25) twenty- five names, after all. 32. See Note 30 Supra and text.

( 12 ) dubious—similar or same names occurring repeatedly. Of some names we are not sure if they are personal names or the titles of works. The Tibetan text, dpag bsam ljon bzaṅ³³ of Lama Sum-pa mk'an-po ye-śes dpal-abyor (1702-1775), traces the origin of the art of painting to Nagnajit:—how he painted the figure of a dead Brahmin child and how the god, Brahman invested it with life. Later on the art of painting was propagated through Viśvakarman, and Ṛṣi Ātreya who discovered calligraphy. The latter is known from Tibetan sources, as the author of an iconographic work, which is preserved in translation, in the Tanjur³⁴. Names of a few more authorities or masters are also known from (stray mentions in) other sources. Their works are existent mostly in Mss. There is a Śilpa-śāstra ascribed to Kāśyapa, the Kāśyap- īya³⁵, also called the Aṁśumad-bheda. It has been edited³⁶. Kāśyapa is said to have learnt this science from Śiva. The Agastya Sakalādhikāra is ascribed to Agastya³⁷. "The work entitled Sacalādhicāra, an excellent but rather volumi- nous performance, is attributed to Agastya, a sage whose history occupies a conspicuous place in the Purāṇas. Some few sections only of this work are to be now met with; and the portion which 33. Pag bsam ljon bzaṅ. Ed., Saratchandra Das. Calcutta, 1908. p. 136ff. 34. Pratimānalakṣaṇa-nāma, classed under Tanjur. Section Mdo —hgrel (Sūtra-vṛtti), Śilpa-vidyā-śāstras. 35. For Mss. of Kāśyapīya, see Catalogue Vol. XXII. Oriental Mss. Library, Madras., pp. 8755ff. Nos. 13032, 13033. Also, Oppert: List of Sanskrit Mss. in Private Libraries of South India, Vol. II, p. 395, No. 6336. 36. Kāśyapīya, quoted by Varāhamihira. Edited in Ānandāśram Skt. Series, from Poona. 37. See P. K. Acharya: Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra- śilpaśāstra. p. 100. For Mss. of the work, see Orient. Mss. Libr.,

( 13 ) has as yet come under my own observation, is exclusively on the subject of sculpture as connected with the function of statues ; but it is so diffuse, that if we suppose the whole work to be written in a similar style, it must considerably exceed the volume of Mānasāra, the largest at present of my collection.”³⁸ There is also, the Sanatkumāra-vāstuśāstra³⁹, of Sanat- kumāra, who acknowledges his debt to other Ācāryas, among whom are Candra and Yama, Bhārgava, Aṅgiras, Manu, Vyāsa, Bhṛgu. 38. Rām Rāz ; Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, (London, M. DCCC. xxxiv.) p. 8. “The small portion which has come under my observation of the work called sacalādhicára,—‘the universal authority’, does not furnish sufficient data to form any opinion of the precise time at which it was composed ; and in the section which gives rules for carving statues, “...the only part...seen, I find no mention of the saints...” “who have been admitted among the inferior divinities.” “It is generally believed to have been composed by Agastya, under the auspices of the founder of the Púndya government, a circumstance which, if admitted, would give to this Work a very high antiquity. Mr. Wilson,...places this event three or four centuries before the Christian æra, although in another place he fixes the date of the civilization of the South of India, ten centuries before Christ, but the data on which this conjecture is formed is imperfect. There exists a long list of the princes of the Púndya, and their contemporary Chola and Chéra dynasties, many of whom appear to have reigned long anterior to the Christian æra, and their celebrity to have attracted the notice of Ptolemy. The few facts,...recorded of those dynasties ...are unfortunately inadequate to the formation of...sketch of their history, or to trace their chronology . . ; but the various accounts...of these ancient monarchies, though they usually commence with the earliest ages, and are blended with...fictions, would still afford...proofs of the establishment of these principalities at an earlier period than...hitherto assigned. And as the Mahábhárat, which is believed to have been composed by Vyása, in the beginning of Kaliyug, makes mention of the Púndya and Chola governments, we must give them credit for higher antiquity.” Ràm Ràz, op. cit., p. 10-11. 39. P. K. Acharya : Op. cit., p. 102. For Mss., see Eggeling, III. 3151, 2680 ; Oppert, Vol. I, No. 8239. In Orient. Mss. Libr., Madras, Cat. Vol. XXII, Nos., 13060-13068, there are nine Mss., mostly fragments.

( 14 ) There is also a Sārasvatīya-śilpa-śāstra⁴⁰ ascribed to Sarasvatī. The Paulastya, Sārasvata, Manohalya, Brahma, Kaumudīka, Nārāyaṇīya (Śilpa-śāstras ?) are also known through quotations⁴¹ ; similarly, are Vasiṣṭha, Nārada, Varāha, Māṇḍavya⁴². Indra, Bhārgava, Āṅgirasa, Dhruva, Gautama, Gārgeya, Manu, Vyāsa and Bhṛgu are also mentioned⁴³. The Aparājita-pṛcchā⁴⁴ is said to be revealed by God at the request of Aparājita ; it was quoted by Hemādri⁴⁵ while, the Aparājita-vāstu-śāstra⁴⁶ is ascribed to Viśva- karman⁴⁷ A Gārgī-saṃhitā⁴⁷ᵃ was known long ago and a Gārgya- saṃhitā⁴⁷ᵇ also exists. Both have been preserved in modern copies. 40. Aufrecht : Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 714. 41. See Orient. Mss. Libr., Madras, Cat. Vol. XXII, No. 13058, Śilpasaṃgraha. It expressly mentions the sources it has been compiled from. 42. See P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture, Appendix I. p. 803. Quoted in Saṃgraha-śiromaṇi by Sarayu Prasad. 43. See Oriental Mss. Libr., Cat. Vol. XXII, No. 13057. 44. An edition of the Aparājita-pṛcchā was announced long ago in the GOS. But the work has not yet come out. Dr. Bhandarkar : Report (1883-84), p. 276, sub voce. Compare also Śilpa-grantha in Eggeling : Op. cit., Mss. 3152, 1603b. 45. "Quoted by Hemādri in Pariśeṣakhaṇḍa 2, 660-62, 819" Aufrecht Cat. Catalog. Vol II, p. 4. 46. Dr. Bühler : Catalogue of Sanskrit Mss. contained in private Libraries—, 1872, p. 276. 47 a. Varāhamihira's Bṛhat-saṃhitā. (Ed., Bibliotheca Indica). Introduction by Kern, p. p. 33 ff. 47 b. P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture. Appen- dix I. sub. voce. "Mss. R. 15. 96., in Trinity College, Cambridge . . .

( 15 ) “According to the Mahābhārata 9. 37, 14f. there is a sacred place Garga-srotas, “Garga’s stream”, on the Sarasvatī, named after the venerable ascetic Garga, who was famous on account of his knowledge of time”, “and the movements of the celestial bodies”. “To the same (later) period (of Indian astronomy) belongs also the Gārgī-saṃhitā of Garga who was always regarded as a highly distinguished authority on Astronomy ; the Vṛddha-Gārga-saṃhitā, which exists, dealt, it is true, chiefly with astrology but it also contained (discussions on) Astronomy⁴⁸ᵃ.” The Bṛhat-saṃhitā⁴⁸ᵇ of Varāhamihira mentions Garga, Maya, Viśvakarman, Vasiṣṭha and Nagnajit, as also, Bhāskara and Manu. Works of Bhāskara and Gaṇapati are also quoted from, in the Vāstu-sāraṇī⁴⁹, a modern compilation ; these may be authentic Śilpaśāstrakāras whose names are known from other sources, and whose works might be preserved. Bhagavān Gaṇapati is mentioned, among later writers only by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī in his Prasthānabheda⁵⁰, as a master of dramaturgy, Bharataśāstram :— 48a. M. Winternitz : Geschichte III. pp. 556-57. Bracketed portions in the above translation are ours. 48b. Bṛhat-saṃhitā. Edited by Kern. Bibliotheca Indica, Asiatic Soc. Bengal ; also, edited by Mm. Sudhākara Dvivedin with Bhaṭṭotpala’s com- mentary, Vizianagram Skt. Series, Benares. 49. P. K. Acharya : Op. cit. Appendix I. sub-voce. Vāstu-sāraṇī by Matīprasāda Pāṇḍe. Benares, 1901. Bhāskara is quoted early, in Varāhamihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā. (Ed. Kern) Ch. 58, 52. 50. These surprisingly informative and new texts are not to be found in the ordinary edition of the Prasthānabheda by Śrī Madhusudana Sarasvatī e. g. from Śrī Vāṇīvilās Press, Śrīraṅgam, 1912. Nor are they to be found in the closely analogous passage in Śrī Madhusūdana’s learned commentary to the ŚIVA-MAHIMNA-STAVA, edited by Panśīkar Lakṣaṇa Vāsudeva, Nirṇayasāgar Press, Bombay under the most famous and oft-quoted verse :—

( 16 ) ॥ १८. भरतशास्त्रम् ॥ एवं नाट्यभरत-हस्तभरत-भावभरत-नेत्रभरत-अभिनयभरत-वाग्भरत गीतवाद्यादि- सप्तशतभरतप्रबोधकं चतुध्व(ष्ष)ष्ट्यध्यायात्मकं भरतशास्त्रं भगवता गणपतिना विरचितम् ॥ The Prasthānabheda also mentions Bhīmasena as the author of the canons of painting, Citrakarma-śāstram :— ॥ १६. चित्रकर्मशास्त्रम् ॥ एवं नखचित्र-केशचित्र-शल्यचित्र-अङ्गचित्र-भावचित्र-आवृत्तचित्र-शिलाचित्र-लोह- चित्राद्येकोननवत्युत्तरशतचित्रप्रबोधकं द्वात्रिंशदध्या[या]त्मकं चित्रकर्मशास्त्रं भीम- विरचितम् ॥ The same Prasthānabheda further informs that Kaśyapa was the author of a voluminous Śilpaśāstra :— ॥ ७. शिल्पशास्त्रम् ॥ एवं यक्षशिल्पि गन्धर्वशिल्पि-किन्नरशिल्पि-किंपुरुषशिल्प्यसुरशिल्पि-दैवशिल्पि-मानुष- शिल्प्यदि-सप्तोत्तरत्रिशतशिल्पप्रभेदान्संग्रहेण निरूप्य भूलोकसंबंधदैवविग्रहदेवालय- राजगृहगरुडस्तंभकुड्यमंटपाद्येकोत्तरशतविधरचनाविधिगर्भितं कश्यपछायापुरुषमारुतिमय- विश्वकर्मत्वष्टृमनुबाणशिल्पिवर्धनवटकशल्यतिप्रभृतीनां परस्परशिल्पप्रभेदमार्गप्रदर्शनपूर्वकं द्विचत्वारिंशदुत्तरैकसहस्रप्रबोधकं द्वाविंश-गुच्छपरिमितं शिल्पशास्त्रं भगवता कश्यपेन प्रणीतम् ॥

त्रयी सांख्यं योगः पशुपतिमतं वैष्णवमिति प्रभिन्ने प्रस्थाने परमिदमदः पथ्यं हितमिति च । रुचीनां वैचित्र्यादृजुकुटिलनानापथजुषां नृणामेको गम्यस्त्वमसि पयसामर्णव इव ॥ The Prasthānabheda of Śrī M. seems to be an elaboration of, if not identical with his elucidations or comments to the passage 'प्रभिन्ने प्रस्थाने' in the above verse, of the Ode—which is one of the gems of Sanskrit Literature. This superb verse may be thus freely rendered into English :— Diverse are the canons—viz. the three (revealed Vedic Texts) Sāṁkhya, Yoga, the doctrines of the Pāśupatas and the Vaiṣṇavas— this one may be supreme, or that one may be salutary and good. People [tread] paths straight or circuitous, owing to their different

[ 17 ] Regarding the Śilpa Śāstras, Rám Ráz says⁵¹ :— "It is true that the Hindus were in possession of numerous treatises on architecture, sculpture, &c., which collectively are called the Śilpa Śāstra, but unfortunately few traces of them remain. There appears to have been, according to some, thirty-two, and according to others sixty-four, standard treatises on the above- mentioned arts········· In a series of memorial verses preserved among the artists, are recorded the names of the authors or titles of the above men- tioned sixty-four treatises. Of these, thirty-two are called Muc'hya, or principal, and thirty-two Upa or subordinate. They (verses) contain little more than titles···mostly patronymics of the deities who···revealed the particular art or

temperaments. But like unto the rivers, which take direct routes or run along circuitous courses, and yet, ultimately, find their ways and merge into the sea — even, like unto that, indeed, O ! my Lord, you alone are the sole Refuge of the human beings. These three most important references to the ancient Masters— Bhagavān Gaṇapati, Bhīma and Kaśyapa — the first two references being especially striking, are to be found in Prasthāna Thraya Madhusūdana Saraswati Smriti. Reproduced by Pandit T. Subraya Sastri of Bangalore. Transl. into Eng. by the Late Ratanlal M. Mody and G. Venkatachala Sarma of Bangalore. V. B. Soobbiah & Sons. Bangalore, 1931. Though there are some anachronisms in the edition, as regards Śrī Madhusūdana's date etc., there are the strongest grounds to suppose that the learned Paṇḍita's wonderful edition is absolutely genuine. As, many of the Texts, mentioned are actually traceable and one, even, published by the same—viz. the Aṁśu-bodhinī of Bhāradvāja Ṛṣi with Comm. As regards the time etc. of Śrī Madhusūdana Sarasvatī, a few words would be not out-of-place. He flourished before Śrī Caitanyadeva, in Bengal and was the author of several works of great erudition, among which are Bhaktirasāyanam (Ed. Acyutagranthamālā, Benares) and Advaitasiddhi (Ed. Rajendra Ghosh, Calcutta). 51. Rám Ráz : Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, London, M. DCCC. XXXIV.

[ 18 ] arts on which each work treated, or of the authors of the treatises themselves, the renowned Rishis or holy men, who are said to have flourished in the earlier ages." The South Indian Āgamas are extensive works and deal mostly with Śiva. There are twenty-eight recognized Āgamas.⁵² Some of them incidentally deal with architectural subjects, in great 52 a. For the South Indian Śaivāgamas see :—H. W. Schomerus : Der Caiva-Siddhānta eine mystik Indiens. Leipzig, J. C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, 1912. Pp. 7ff. Einleitung : 2. Die Caivāgama, die Haupt- autorität des Caiva-Siddhānta (a) Der Ursprung and das Alter der Āgama (b) Die Gruppierung der Āgama and ihr Umfang ; J. M. Nallaswāmi Pillai ; Śivajñāna Siddhiyār of Arunandi Śivāchārya. Madras, Meykandan Press, 1913. Pp. lii—lv. List of Āgamas or Tantra with Upāgamas. 52 b. "Some of the Āgamas deal with very technical matters, which are not met with in the Purāṇas. Moreover, some Āgamas, to all intents and purposes, are but architectural treatises. The Kāmikāgama, for instance, devotes sixty chapters out of a total of seventy-five to architecture and sculpture, and its treatment of the subjects can hardly be surpassed by that of an avowedly architectural treatise". "The Kāraṇāgama also devotes much space to architecture and sculp- ture. There are thirty-seven chapters in the Āgama, which deal with these subjects exhaustively. It makes a distinct addition to the Āgamas' contribu- tions to the Śilpa-śāstras. It contributes two valuable chapters dealing with the details of the nine and ten tāla measures. This is also a highly techni- cal matter concerning sculpture and entirely missing in the Purāṇas". "The Suprabhedāgama has devoted only fifteen chapters to architecture and sculpture. Nor has it anything new to add to the Āgamas' contribu- tions to the Śilpa-śāstras. But its unique nature consists in the fact that it has quite successfully summarised all important matters in a comparatively small space, and in respect of brevity, explicitness and precision it surpasses even the Bṛhat-saṃhitā of Varāhamihira." "The Vaikhānasāgama has two chapters on sculpture, one of which deals with the general description of images and the other with the ten tāla measures. The Aṁśumad-bhedāgama has a single chapter on the ten tāla measures." P. K. Acharya : Ind. Architecture according to the Mānaṣāra, pp. 23—28 The Āgamas.

[ 19 ] detail. The oldest Śaivāgama extant the (Uttara) Kāmikāgama is probably not older than the 5th or 6th century A. C.⁵³. We owe it entirely to (the religious zeal of) the Buddhists, the conservation, for posterity, of some Śilpa Texts—both Buddhistic and Brahmanical, and perhaps, even Jaina—a few of which are entirely lost in Sanskrit. Wonderfully accurate translations of the Sanskrit versions, for example, of the Works of Ātreya and of Nagnajit, are preserved in the encyclopædic Tibetan compilation Bstan-ḥgyur.⁵⁴ Dr. Berthold Laufer had brought out a critical edition of the Tibetan version of Citralakṣaṇam⁵⁵ ascribed to Nagnajit. Of special importance are some of the original Sanskrit texts, procured from Nepal, mainly through the initiative of the present writer. And by him some of these have been published for the first time. Further information regarding Śilpa works, preserved in Tibetan translation and procured in their original, have also been given, elsewhere, fully, by the present writer.⁵⁶ Besides these, a few Śilpa Texts of purely Buddhistic nature, are preserved, in Ceylon. They are in corrupt Sanskrit surely probably Post-Buddhistic. The most important among them, is the Sāriputra⁵⁷ ascribed to Sāriputra, a direct disciple of the Blessed One. 53. T. A. Gopinatha Rao : Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. I, Part I, p. 55. 54. Cordier : Catalogue du Fonds Tibétain de la Bibliothéque Nationale. Bstan-hgyur, Section. Mdo-hgrel Sūtra-vṛtti, Commentary on the sūtras, classed under the general name Śilpa-vidyā-śāstras, p. 474. 55. See Note 29, Supra. 56. Haridas Mitra : The Buddhapratimā-lakṣaṇam with the Com- mentary Vivaraṇī. The Prince of Wales Sarasvatī-bhavana Sanskrit Texts. No. 48. (Benares, 1933). See the Introduction. 57. Through the kind help of Bhadanta Mañjuśrī, very obliging Buddhist Monk who is well grounded in Pāli and Sanskrit, I was able

[ 20 ] The Buddha-pratimā-lakṣaṇam is preserved also in a Chinese version.⁵⁸ We thus have three versions of this Śilpa text— the original Sanskrit, the Tibetan and the Chinese Translations, for comparison. But the Jainas preceded the Buddhists in the adoption of an iconolatrous cult. Very probably, the artistic study, for representation, of the undraped human body, originated with the Nirgrantha and the Ājīvika ascetics, who went about naked and had daily chances for observing the natural bodily forms, in course of their ascetic practices ⁵⁹ Indeed, the Jainas contributed, from early times, very considerably to the develop- ment of the plastic and the graphic arts of India.⁶⁰ Though the Buddhists as well as the Jainas have made important contributions to art the Brāhmaṇic art traditions—as contained in the Śilpa-śāstras, are perhaps much earlier. The Vāstu-śāstras and its subsidiary branch the Śilpa-śāstras have been generally included into one of the Upavedas— the Artha-śāstra, by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī⁶¹:—

to prepare for my personal use a Nāgarī transcription of this important Text and its Ceylonese Commentary. This learned monk has also undertaken to transcribe in Nāgarī, for my use, the two remaining chapters of the Sāriputra, as also the Rūpāvalī. I am preparing to publish critical editions of these important Texts of Buddhistic Art in near future. 58. See Haridas Mitra : Op. cit., Appendix : Tsao-siang-tou-leang- king. 59a. See Berthold Laufer : Op. cit., Einleitung. Seit 8 und Seit 17. 59b. The present writer, owes it to the kindness of the learned Muni Jina-vijayajī, the information regarding the existence of a single Jaina Śilpa Canon. It is in a fragmentary state of preservation and in MS. The Authorship of the Work is ascribed to Thakkar Ph(F)eru. 60. Full discussions of these questions have been given in my Contributions to (the study of) Indian Iconometry, in course of publication. 61. Madhusūdana Sarasvatī : Prasthāna-bheda. (Ed., T. Subraya Śāstrī, Mangalore).

[ 21 ] अथोपवेदाः ॥ आयुर्वेदो, धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्ववेदोऽर्थशास्त्रं चेति चत्वार उपवेदाः ॥ ॥ अथार्थशास्त्राणि ॥ एवमर्थशास्त्रं च बहुविधम् । नीतिशास्त्रं [अश्वशास्त्रं] शिल्पशास्त्रं सूप[कार-] शास्त्रं चतुष्षष्टिकलाशास्त्रं चेति । अपि च भौतिकादिभौतिकशास्त्राण्यपि । नानामुनिभिः प्रणीतं तत्सर्वं[ । ] तस्य सर्वस्य च लौकिकत(व)त्प्रयोजनभेदो द्रष्टव्यः ॥ But there is hardly any authority or cogency, for including the sciences of art, architecture, sculpture etc.—the Vāstu-śāstras and the Śilpa-śāstras, into the science of polity—the Artha- śāstra. On the other hand, the preparation of the Gnomon Śaṅku- nirmāṇam, and ascertaining by it the cardinal points (of the compass), the plotting of the ground-plan by means of the plumb and other lines Sūtra-pāta etc., are really subjects, appertaining alike both to the Vedāṅgic—Jyautiṣa, (Kalpa) Śulva-sūtras, and the Śilpa-śāstras. The Śilpa-śāstras are therefore closely related to the Vedāṅgas and must be regarded as a Vedic Upāṅga. The Śulva-sūtras⁶²ᵃ form supplementary parts of the Kalpa- sūtras and prescribe rules for the construction of sacrificial Altars— Śulva having the sense of Rajju, cords for measurement of distances. The two most important treatises of Śulvasūtras are those of Baudhāyana and Āpastamba. Two smaller treatises of later dates, are the Mānava and the Maitrāyaṇīya Śulva-sūtras. There is also a Kātyāyana Śulva Pariśiṣṭa, belonging to the Śukla Yajuṣ.⁶²ᵇ The emendations (within brackets) of the Nāgarī Text, are by the present writer, from a comparison of the different editions. 62a. Dr. G. Thibaut : Sūlva Sūtras. J. A. S. B. Part I. 1875 ; Also, the Paṇḍit. Old Series (1874, 1876) Vols. IX & X ; and New Series (1876, 1882) Vols. I & IV. 62b. Prof. M. Winternitz : A History of Indian Literature. Vol. I, (Cal. Univ. 1927). P. 277. "Only in the Black Yajurveda schools of Baudhāyana and of Āpastamba do we find Kalpasūtras containing all the four kinds of sūtra texts, Śrauta, Gṛhya, Dharma and Śulva-sūtras ; and

[ 22 ] The Śulva-sūtras give directions for construction of the fire Altars, the Vedis and the Citis etc. From the root ciñ cayane, to collect —— are derived, the three most important terms :— a. Citi—Sacrificial altars, for gathering the holy fire agnicayana, agnyādhāna. b. Citā—The funeral pyre for the cremation of dead bodies. c. Caitya—Monuments enclosing post-cremation human remains, sacred relics—the Buddhadhātu, etc. in these cases it can be proved that these works are indeed so interconnected that, to a certain extent, they can be regarded as the four volumes of a uniform work. It is possible that Baudhāyana and Āpastamba were actually the authors of complete Kalpasūtras comprising all the four kinds of texts. But even if they were not the actual authors, at all events, the Śrauta, Gṛhya, Dharma and Śulvasūtras of Baudhāyana and Āpastamba schools are works composed on a uniform plan, of these two schools* of the Yajurveda.… * The Baudhāyana-Śulvasūtra has been edited and translated by G. Thibaut in the "Pandit", Vols. IXff ; the Āpastambīya-Śulvasūtra ed. and translated into German by Albert Bürk. ZDMG., Vols. 55, 56, 1901—2.*” P. 278. "The Śrauta, Gṛhya and Śulvasūtras of the Mānava school*, and the Kāṭhaka-Gṛhyasūtra, which is related to the Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra, come under the Maitrayaṇī-saṃhitā... * The Mānava-Śrautasūtra is perhaps the oldest Śrautasūtra. Garbe has shown that it is certainly older than Āpastamba who refers to it. P. 278-79. "To the White Yajurveda belong : a Kātyāyana-Śrauta sūtra, a Pāraskara Gṛhyasūtra and a Kātyāyana-Śulva-sūtra.* * A Pariśiṣṭa to this (Kātīyam Śulvapariśiṣṭam)—ed. by G. Thibaut in "Pandit", N. S., Vol. 4.*” P. 271. "Ritual (Kalpa), which constitutes the chief contents of the Brāhmaṇas, is...the first Vedāṅga to receive systematic treatment in special manuals, the so-called Kalpasūtras. They arose out of the need for compiling the rules for the sacrificial ritual in a shorter, more manageable and connected form for the practical purposes of the priests." P. 275. "The Śulvasūtras, which are directly attached to the Śrauta- sūtras, should be mentioned in connection with these Kalpasūtras. They

[ 23 ] Indeed, the beginnings of the Vāstu-śāstras and the Śilpa- śāstras are to be traceable to the Vedāṅgic Jyautiṣa, (Kalpa) Śulva- sūtras⁶³ on the one hand, and to the Tāntrika ritualistic Yantras and Maṇḍalas⁶⁴ etc., on the other. Among the treatises on Nīti and its sub-class Vārtā and on Jyotiṣa, the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, the Śukranīti and the Bṛhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira call for special notice. The Indian Artha and the Nīti Śāstras have been called poly-technical treatises⁶⁵; and the Vārtā appertains to Economics.⁶⁶ The Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya devotes some six or seven chapters to town-planning, the construction of residential build- ings and fort, and specially military architecture. The Artha- śāstra of Kauṭilya is an old work but in its present form not older than the 3rd century A.C.⁶⁷ In ‘Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, Viśālākṣa, Bāhudantiputra, Bṛhaspati and Uśanas have been cited as teachers of Artha. Compare also Kāmasūtra, p. 3f., where it is narrated, that from the great work by the creator Brahman on the Trivarga, Manu separated the part dealing with Dharma, Bṛhaspati—that on Artha and Nandin, Śiva's servant—the one on Kāma. Mahā- bhārata, XII, 59, 28ff., 76ff.’ contain exact rules for the measurement (Śulva means "measuring- string") and the building of the place of sacrifice and the fire-altars, and as the oldest works on Indian Geometry, are of no little importance for the history of science." 63. See Note 62. Supra. 64. For examples, see श्रीश्रीशारदातिलकतन्त्रम् । Shāradātilakatantram, with commentary पदार्थादर्श। Padārthādarsha. Edited by Aṭalānanda Sarasvatī. Tantrik Texts Vols. XVI. and XVII. Paṭala 3. 65. P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch, p. 132. 66. Narendranath Law: Vārtā—The ancient Hindu Economics, Ind. Antiq., Vol. XLVII, p. 256. 67. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III Band, (Leipzig. 1922), p. 523.

[ 24 ] 'Viśālākṣa—the great-eyed one, is one name of Śiva. And Bāhudantin is another name of Indra'.⁶⁸ In the Matsya Purāṇa, Viśālākṣa, Nandin, Indra, Śukra and Bṛhaspati are, all of them, cited as teachers of Śilpa.⁶⁹ Among them Nandikeśvara or Nandiśvara was also an ancient teacher of Kāmaśāstra. Besides, this there is one Nandi- keśvara who was the author of an work on Abhinaya—Abhinaya- darpaṇam, 'the Mirror of Gestures'.⁷⁰ 'Bṛhaspati is at the same time a teacher of the Lokāyata system, and there is close relationship, between Lokāyata and Arthaśāstra. From the Mahābhārata, it is learnt, that the Indian Tradition regarded Bṛhaspati as the Founder of the Arthaśāstra. This old Arthaśāstra of Bṛhaspati, alas, is preserved to us only in a version strongly altered and mixed-up with modern elements.'⁷¹ 'The Śukranīti⁷² i. e., the Textbook on Politics written by Śukra or Uśanas is a work of quite recent times, if we do not call 68. See Dr. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, III Band. (Leipzig. 1922), pp. 507-8 and p. 508 Note 1. Free translation of this Note is given above. 69. See Text and Note 25. Supra. 70. Nandikeśvara's Abhinaya-darpaṇam. Edited by Manomohan Ghosh. Calcutta Sanskrit Series. No. 5. (Metropolitan Printing and Publishing House, Ltd. Calcutta, 1934). For further information regarding Nandi- keśvara, see the present writer (Haridas Mitra's) : Sadāśiva Worship. J.P.A.S.B. (New Series). Vol. XXIX, 1933. App. III, see under Nandi- keśvara. 71. M. Winternitz : Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, Band III, p. 508. (The above passage has been rendered freely into English, from this book, by the present writer. 72. M. Winternitz : Op. cit., p. 532 (Free Translation). "Besides the edition of Śukranīti of G. Oppert (Madras, 1882) there is also one of Jīvānanda Vidyāsāgara (Calcutta, 1882) and several Indian Prints with translations in Bengali, Marāthi and Hindi. Text : another Ed. by B. K. Sarkar (New York, 1915); Eng. Transl., by the same (Allahabad). On

[ 25 ] it, a forgery. Whether the remnants of an old Arthaśāstra have been preserved in the Śukranīti or not must be investigated first.’ The Śukranīti in an older form may be anterior to the Matsya-P., which mentions Śukrācārya, as one of the eighteen authorities of architecture—Vāstuśāstropadeśakas.⁷³ The Śukranīti deals with architecture and sculpture in chapter IV, sections 4 and 6. There are frequent and casual references to both these subjects in other portions of the treatise as well.⁷⁴ ‘Varāhamihira’s Bṛhatsaṃhitā is one of the most important works of the Indian literature. It is a principal work on natural Astrology. As this subject is of importance in all departments of life, all the varied branches of the public and the private life have been treated in the work. Hence it partakes to some extent of an encyclopædic character and is concerned with numerous other arts and sciences’.⁷⁵ Thus the Bṛhatsaṃhitā, usually classed under the astro- nomical and astrological treatises, is but a semi-Purāṇa, dealing, as it does, with heterogeneous subjects like the Purāṇas themselves. ... In this treatise there are but five chapters devoted to both architecture and sculpture. But the subjects have been treated with a master hand. ... Quite consistently with his sense of proportion Varāhamihira devotes only one chapter to sculpture, in which details of images are described in a scientific manner which is the Śukranīti, B. K. Sarkar based The Positive Background of Hindu Sociology I, II (The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Allahabad)”. 73. Matsya-Purāṇam, (Ānandāśram Ed., 1907), chap. 252. See Note 25. supra. 74. P. K. Acharya : A Dictionary of Hindu Arch., p. 799 ; also see Śukranīti Text ; and the Engl. Transl. by B. K. Sarkar. 75. M. Winternitz : Geschichte III, p. 567. Bṛhatsaṃhitā :—Ed. by H. Kern (Bibliotheca Indica) ; Ed. by Mm. Sudhākara Dvivedin with the Commentary of Bhaṭṭotpala (Vizianagram Sanskrit Series) ; Transl. for the greater part by H. Kern. JRAS. (1870—75). Complete Translation by Chidambaram Iyer (Madura, 1884). D—4

[ 26 ] distinctly missing in other ancient literatures......in his treatise seven architectural authorities are mentioned distinctly."⁷⁶ The authorities of architecture and sculpture, specially mentioned are Maya and Viśvakarman, Garga and Manu, Nagnajit, Vasiṣṭha and Bhāskara.⁷⁷ CHAPTER III THE CANONS OF INDIAN ART (Contd.) While, it is not necessary to make anything more than only passing reference to the Vedic, the Epic (Itihāsa) and the Classical Sanskrit and the Buddhist literatures etc., on subjects like architecture, art etc., these being dealt with, at great lengths by more competent scholars, elsewhere, the Purāṇas in this connexion call for special notice⁷⁸. 76. P. K. Acharya : Ind. Arch., p. 22. 77. भूमिकाङ्गुलमानेन मध्यस्याष्टोत्तरं शतम् । सार्धं हस्तद्वयं चैव कथितं विश्वकर्मणा ॥ २६ ॥ प्रासादलक्षणमिदं कथितं समासाद् गर्गेण यद्विरचितं तदिहास्ति सर्वम् । मन्वादिभिर्विरचितानि पृथूनि यानि तत्संस्कृतिं प्रति मयात्र कृतोऽधिकारः ॥ ३१ ॥ षट्पञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥ अष्टौ सीसकभागाः कांसस्य द्वौ तु रीतिकाभागः । मयकथितो योगोऽयं विज्ञेयो वज्रसंघातः ॥ ८ ॥ सप्तपञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥ स्वैरङ्गुलप्रमाणैर्द्वादश विस्तीर्णमायतं च मुखम् । नग्नजिता तु चतुर्दश दैर्घ्येण द्राविडं कथितम् ॥ ४ ॥ चतुरङ्गुलं वसिष्ठः कथयति नेत्रान्तकर्णयोर्विवरम् । अधरोऽङ्गुलप्रमाणस्तस्यार्धेनोत्तरोष्ठश्च ॥ ८ ॥ अञ्चलमूर्ध्वं दृष्ट्वा करोति चिन्तामधोमुखी दृष्टिः । सर्वप्रतिमास्वेवं शुभाशुभं भास्करोक्तसमम् ॥ ५२ ॥ अष्टपञ्चाशोऽध्यायः ॥ The Bṛhatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Ed. H. Kern, (Bibliotheca Indica). 78. For General information in full, regarding the Purāṇas, see :—