प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

268 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. facilitated by the fact that the time for the ritual, the 4th to the 7th year, was suitable also for the com- mencement of primary education. The number and nature of the locks of hair to be kept at the time of the tonsure ceremony had close connection with the Vedic sages with whom the family was believed to be connected¹; this may also have suggested a synchroni- sation of the commencement of primary education with the celebration of the chaula-karma. SECTION B. UPANAYANA (INITIATION²) RITUAL Upanayana, its Meaning and Significance Upanayana literally means taking a student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education: The ritual was originally performed when a student commenced his Vedic education under the supervision of a teacher, with whom he usually lived. It was not an obligatory ritual ; if a student was unfit by character or calibre to receive the Vedic education, he was not admitted to its privillege.³ If, on the other hand, during the course of his education, he had to go to a different teacher, the ritual had to be repeated. Nay, it was felt that it should be performed again even in the case of

1. Cf. यथर्षि शिखां विदधाति । A. G. S., XVI, 6: दक्षिणेन कपर्दो वसिष्ठानां उभयतोऽत्रिभार्गवकाश्यपानां पंचचूडा आंगिरसाम् । V.G.S., section 4. 2 The popular English translation of the name of the ritual by 'Thread Ceremony' does not convey its real meaning at all. The wearing of the sacred thread was quite a minor element in the ritual.
2. अशूद्राणामदुष्टकर्मणामुपानयनम् । Ap. Gr. S., 1.1.5. विद्या ह वै ब्राह्मणमाजगाम गोपाय मां शेवधिष्टेऽहमस्मि । असूयकायानुजवेऽयताय न मा ब्रूया वीर्यवती तथा स्याम् ॥ Nirukta, II. 4.1.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 269 married men, if they wanted to prosecute further studies under a new teacher.¹ It was thus essentially an educational ritual and bore some resemblance to the formality of the admission procedure in modern schools and colleges. In the course of time, however its signi- ficance changed. It was felt necessary that the services of the whole Aryan community should be conscripted for the preservation of the Vedic literature which had grown to considerable dimensions in the course of centuries; Upanayana and Vedic studies were therefore made obligatory for all. If it was not performed in time, it was declared that the person would lose his Aryan status and become unfit for marriage and social intercourse. This threat no doubt helped the spread of Vedic learning and gave an impetus to primary education, which was in later times presupposed by Vedic studies; but it also tended to transform this educational function into a bodily (śārīrika) ritual. It began to be argued that it should be performed even in the case of dumb and deaf persons in order to render them eligible for marriage.² Some late Smṛiti writers felt that the ritual was primarily for the purification of the body; they have therefore recommended that it should be repeated in case the body is defiled by the bite of a 1 Ch. Up. V. II. Here, as a special case, King Aśvapati excu the formality of Upanayana before beginning to teach his distin- guished Brāhmaṇa pupils. The latter, however, had come ready for the Upanayana. Cf. :— ते ह समित्पाणयः पूर्वाह्णे प्रतिचक्रमिरे । तान्हानुपनीयैव एतदुवाच । 2. See VMS, p. 361. The difficulty created by the impossibility of the recitation of Vedic hymns by a deaf and dumb person was got over by the theory that they may be recited by the teacher on behalf of the dumb student. बटुपठनीयानां मंत्राणामाचार्य प्रत्येकं पाठो विधीयते । Ibid. Some writers like Śaṅkha-Likhita however did not agree with this view ; cf. नोन्मत्तमूकान्संस्कुर्यात् । Quoted in VMS., p. 406

270 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. dog or a jackal.¹ And if the holy Brahmana can be rendered holier by this Saṁskāra, why should it fail to perform a similar miracle in the case of other inanimate objects ? In medieval times the custom therefore arose of performing this ceremony over the holy Pippal tree in order to make it holier.² All these, however, are later anomalies that crept into society when the original purpose of Upanayana was being gradually forgotten. Its Antiquity : The antiquity of this ritual goes back to prehistoric times. It existed in the Indo- Iranian period and is clearly presupposed by the Ṛigveda [X. 109, 5; III. 8. 4 and 5]. The Atharva- veda describes it in detail and attributes the proper functioning of society and nature to its mysterious efficacy.³ Details about the student's life and paraphernalia, more or less similar to those given in Smṛitis, are to be seen in several passages of the Brāhmaṇa literature.⁴ In the early period, the ritual was a simple one ; even a verbal acceptance by the teacher was sufficient.⁵ For a long time the father himself acted as the teacher (Br. Up., V. 2.1 ; VI. 2.9).

1. Cf. Śātātapa, Paiṭhīnasi and Yama quoted in VMS., p. 545-7.
2. An inscription from Karnatak refers to a Brahmana, per- forming this ceremony on the four Aśvatha trees planted by him in a temple garden in 1358 A.D. E.C., III, Malavalli No. 28.
3. ब्रह्मचर्येणं तपसा राजा राष्ट्रं विरक्षति । XI. 5. 17. ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । XI. 5. 18. ब्रह्मचर्येण तपसा देवा मृत्युमपाघ्नत । XI. 5. 19. स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च ॥ XI. 5. 1. See also, VI. 138.
4. Tai. S., VI, 3, 10, 5; Sat. Br., XI, 5, 4, (here we have a detailed description of the Upanayana); Go. Br., I. 2, 1-8 (here we have several interesting reasons for the different rules of Brahmacharya).
5. वाचा ह स्मैव पूर्वमुपयति । Br. Up., VI. 2.7.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 271 Who were eligible for it ? Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were eligible for the Upanayana and Vedic study. They are collectively called Dvijas, because they were all believed to get a second birth, a spiritual one, at the time of the Upanayana. When the ritual became obligatory, it seems to have been regularly performed by all these castes for several centuries. Smritis give detailed rules about the different kinds of girdles, staffs, sacred threads, etc. which were prescribed for the members of the various castes. Details about these minor variations would not have been evolved if the ritual had not been a general one among the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. In the course of time, however, Vedic studies fell into background, partly owing to the setback which the Vedic religion received by the rise of the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist movements, and partly by the development of other branches of knowledge in the Hindu community itself. Upanayana then began to fall into disuetitude among the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas, with whose professions in subsequent life Vedic studies were but remotely connected. This happened at about the beginning of the Christian era, when the theory that only the Brahmanas and Shudras exist in the Kali age seems to have gained ascendancy¹. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas

1. Bhāsa (3rd century A. D.) and Daṇḍin (7th century A. D.) regarded the sacred thread as an insignia of a Brahmana and not of a Dvija. Cf :— यज्ञोपवीतेन ब्राह्मणश्चीवरेण रक्तपटः । Avimāraka, Act V. भवदंसोपनीतं यज्ञोपवीतं भूसुरभावं द्योतयति । Daśakumāracharit, 2nd Chap. Cf also Raghuvamśa, XI, 64. An inscription however shows that the Upanayana of the Hoysala King Narasimha III, who was a Kshatriya, took place in his 9th year on 25-2-1255. It appears that even when the ritual had gone out of . vogue among the Kshatriyas in general, it continued among the royal families.

272 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. were levelled down to the position of the Shudras, primarily because they were not performing the Upa- nayana ceremony and wearing the Sacred Thread. Probably in respectable Kshatriya ruling families, the ritual continued to be performed down to the 13th century, but their number was very small. The testi- mony of Alberuni (I, p. 125) shows that the Vedic education had practically died down among the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas before the 11th century A.D. In the earlier centuries of the Christian era, the ritual was performed by these castes as an unmeaning formality, as is the case with the Brahmanas now. Later on it was discontinued. It may be noted in this connection that it was not without difficulty that Shivaji could succeed in getting a Brahmana Pandit from Benares, ready to perform the Upanayana for him at the age of 44. The Age at the Upanayana : The Upanayana marks the beginning of the Vedic education, which in several respects resembled the secondary education of modern times. Naturally therefore some age between 8 and 12 was regarded as suitable for it. Usually our texts prescribe that the Upanayana should be performed in the 8th year in the case of a Brahmana, in the 11th year in the case of a Kshatriya and in the 12th year in the case of a Vaishya. No particular sanctity was attached to these ages¹ ; for, some writers like Baudhāyana regard any age between 8 and 16 as suitable for the Upanayana². There was no idea of

1. The selection of these particular ages seems to have been due to the rather fortuitous circumstance of the syllables of each line of the Sāvitrī Mantras of these castes being 8, 11 and 12 respectively. Cf. ब्राह्मणादिवर्णसंबंधिनां छंदसां पादाक्षरसंख्यैरब्दैरुपनयनस्य विधेः ( कार्य- वात् ) । Medhātithi on Manu, II. 38. Cf. also VMS., p. 344.
2. अष्टमे आयुष्कामं नवमे तेजस्कामं••••त्रयोदशे मेधाकामं चतुर्दशे पुष्टिकामं••••षोडशे सर्वकामम् । Bau. Gr. S., II. 5. 5.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 273 emphasising the intellectual superiority of the Brahmanas¹, when a lower age was prescribed for their Upanayana. Family traditions in Brahmanical circles facilitated Vedic educatiou at an early age ; such was not the case with Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. Brahmana boys could very often begin their Vedic education at home ; Kshatriya and Vaishya boys had necessarily to leave their families and go to a Brahmana teacher for that purpose ; the age of 11 or 12, when boys are to some extent able to look after themselves, was there- fore found convenient for them. It is interesting to note that the Brahmana boy Śvetaketu also performed his Upanayana at the age 12 and immediately went to stay with his preceptor for prosecuting his education (Ch. Up. VI. 1-2). It would therefore appear that even in Brahmanical families, the Upanayana was post- poned to a later age when it was to be followed by the separation of the boy from his family. It is the similar necessity of sending the boys outside to a town or a city that compels villagers of our time to begin their wards' secondary education at about the age of 11 or 12. In cultured Brahmana families, which were very keen about the quick progress of their sons, the tradition was to perform the Upanayana and begin the Vedic studies even earlier than the 8th year². This practice is similar to that of many well-to-do and cultured city families, which begin the secondary or English education of their wards at about the age of 6 or 7. Smṛitis have therefore naturally given much latitude about the age at the Upanayana in order to suit the circumstances and convenience of the different

1. As supposed by Keay (p. 29) and Das (p. 72).
2. सप्तमे ब्राह्मणमुपनयीत पंचमे ब्रह्मवर्चसकामम् । J. Gr., S., I. 12. Cf. also G. D. S., 1. 1. 7; M. Gr. S., 1. 22. 1; Vâ. Gr. S., 6. 18

274 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. types of families in society¹. They however felt that it ought to begin at about the age of 12, for the powers of mind that were required for the Vedic studies could be properly cultivated and developed only at an early age. The commencement of the Vedic studies after the age of 16 has been definitely discouraged by them,² for it was rightly apprehended that a boy who begins his studies at such an advanced age may find them too tedious, his mind having already become susceptible to sensuous attractions. Critical Survey of the Ritual: An educationalist will find the survey of the Upanayana ritual very interesting and instructive. The ritual opens with a breakfast (which precedes even the bath), during which it is the custom in many parts of the country for the boy to share food with his mother in the same dish. A breakfast before bath is unusual in Hindu rituals

1. A child of 6 or 7 could not recite with proper accent and pronunciation even the Sāvitrī verse; so it was recommended that in the cases of very early Upanayanas, the teaching of this Mantra should be postponed by about a year; Cf. तां ह स्मैतां पुरा संवत्सरे अन्वाहुः संवत्सरसंमिता वै गर्भाः । S. Br. XI. It may be noted in this connection that at a time when there was a prejudice against commit- ting the Vedic texts to writing and when grammar had not been evolved, not much preparation by way of primary education was necessary for commencing Vedic studies. They could therefore be begun even at the early age of 6 or 7. It is interesting to note that Smṛitis do not lay down any detailed rules about the astrological auspiciousness of the day of the Upanayana. These were introduced in medieval times.
2. नातिषोडशवर्षमुपनयीत प्रसृष्टवृषणो ह्येष वृषलीभूतो भवति । J. Gr. S., 1. 12. The upper limit of 22 and 24 permitted for the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas is due simply to the doubling of their normal age. The readiness of Mitramisra, a 17th century writer, to permit Upanayana upto the age of 24, 33 and 36 seems to be due to the exigencies of the age, when some persons like Shivaji were performing the ritual, when reminded about it, or when it became absolutely necessary. VMS., 351.

I, B] UPANAYANA-RITUAL 275 and its occurrence at the Upanayana was obviously intended to indicate that the earlier period of unregulated childhood had come to an end and that serious and disciplined life was now to follow. Breakfast was followed by a shave,—an invariable element in most of the Hindu religious observances. The boy was then given a bath and offered a Kaupīna¹. This was to remind him that the Upanayana commenced a new epoch in his life from which dignity, decorum and self-restraint could never be separated. A girdle (mekhalā) was tied round his waist as a support for Kaupīna. It was made of triple cord, the symbolism being intended to foster the belief in the scholar that he was being continuously encircled by the three Vedas². The verses recited on the occasion of tying the girdle informed the boy that his belt was a daughter of Faith (Śraddhā) and a sister of the sages, possesed the power of protecting his purity and chastity and would keep him away from evil³. Hindu ideas of decorum required that when engaged in religious duties, the upper part of the body should be covered with a piece of cloth⁴. On the occasion of the Upanayana the young scholar was therefore offered an upper garment. In the earliest period, when spinning and weaving were

1. Kaupīna denotes the small strip of cloth used by childrer to cover their private parts. It was usually discontinued at about the age of 12 when the boy was required to wear the full dhoti. Cf. Aśvalāyana quoted in VMS., p. 432
2. वेदत्रयेणावृतोऽहमिति मन्येत स द्विजः । अश्वलायन in VMS., p. 432
3. श्रद्धाया दुहिता तपसोधिजाता स्वसा ऋषीणां भूतकृतां बभूव । A. V., VI. 138. 4. ऋतस्य गोप्त्री तपसश्चरित्री घ्नती रक्षांसि सहमानाऽरातीः । Vā. Gr. S. 5.
4. स्नानं दानं तपो होमः स्वाध्यायः पितृतर्पणम् । नैकवस्त्रो द्विजः कुर्याच्छ्राद्धभोजनसत्क्रियाः ॥ Yogayājñavalkya in SCS., p. 299

276 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. probably unknown, a deer-skin was offered on the occasion. The youth was asked to remember that the lovely deerskin is symbolical of brahmavarchasam or spiritual and intellectual preeminence and that its constant use ought to urge him to attain reputation as a man of character and scholarship¹. When spinning and weaving became common, a piece of cloth was offered to the boy on this occasion, spun and woven in his own family just before the ceremony². A survey of the Gṛihya-sūtras, which describe the Upanayana ritual in detail, shows that the investiture with the Sacred Thread did not form part of the Upanayana ritual. The upper garment that was offered to the boy was in lieu of the Sacred Thread or rather its predecessor. This will be shown in the Appendix D, where the whole history of the Sacred Thread and its significance will be discussed in details. Presentation to Deities : Invested with the above paraphernalia, the boy was taken to the sacred fire, the earliest Indo-European deity known so far. He was asked to offer a samidh (a piece of sacred fuel) to the gleaming fire and the verses recited on the occasion prayed that God Fire should be auspicious to the young scholar and endow him with brilliance, intelligence and vigour³, so that his scholarship and strength should glow up like the resplendent flame of fire. In order to intensify his piety, the boy was then presented to a number of Vedic deities like Bhaga, Yama, Aryamā and Savitrī. The last mentioned god was charged with the special duty of protecting the

1. G. Br., I. 2. 1-3
2. वासः सद्यःकृत्वोतं । B. Gr. S., II. 5. 11
3. Cf. अयं ते इध्म आत्मा जातवेदः तेन वर्द्धस्व चेन्द्ध वर्द्धय चास्मान् । Bh. Gr. S., I. 5.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 277 student from harm, disease and death¹. When this presentation was over, the teacher assured his pupil that he was thenceforward under divine protection²; fortified by that consciousness, he should push forth his studies without any apprehensions. Standing on Stone : The next element in the ritual is a symbolical one; the boy was asked to stand on a stone and enjoined to be steadfast in the pursuit of his studies³. Firm determination and singleness of purpose are most essential for a successful educational career and the necessity of cultivating them was emphasised on the scholar's mind by this element in the ritual. Acceptance by the Teacher : The scholar was then brought before his teacher who asked him whose Braha- chārin⁴ (student) he was. The young boy naturally replied to the preceptor that he was the latter's disciple. The preceptor then used to correct him and asked him to note that he was the pupil of gods Indra and Agni, the most popular and powerful among the Vedic deities⁵. When formally taking charge of the pupil by seizing his right hand, the teacher used to announce that he was doing so with the command and concur- rence of God Savitṛi.⁶ The teacher then touched the

1. Cf. देव सवितेरेष ते ब्रह्मचारी स मा मृत । Aś. Gr. S., I, 20, 6
2. Śat Br., XI. 5, 4, 3.
3. Mā. Gr. S., I. 22. 12. Stone was also symbolical of strength: Bh. G. S. held that the significance of the ritual was to make the boy invulnerable. I. 8.
4. Brahma originally meant prayer; the original meaning of Brahmacharya was thus the period of study of the sacred prayers or the Vedic Mantras. Since chastity was usually observed in this period, the term came to acquire the secondary sense of a period of chastity as well. Brahmachārin was one who followed Brahmacharya discipline.
5. Cf. कस्य त्वं ब्रह्मचार्यसि । भवत इत्युच्यमाने इन्द्रस्य ब्रह्मचार्यसि अग्निरचार्यस्तव अहमाचार्यस्तव । Pā. Gr. S., II, 3.
6. Aś. Gr. S., I. 20, 4.

278 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. heart of his pupil and prayed that there should be a perpetual and perfect accord between them.¹ All this was intended to emphasise that the relations between the teacher and the pupil were sacred and not mercenary and progress in education was possible only if there was complete harmony, sympathy and whole-hearted communion between the teacher and the taught. Teaching and Significance of the Savitri (Gayatri) Mantra: Then followed the actual initiation of the student in the Vedic studies, which was done by teaching him a prayer to the sun (Sāvitrī-mantra); this is popularly known as Gāyatrī-mantra on account of its metre. This prayer, which every student and householder had to recite morning and evening, runs as follows:— Tat savitur vareṇyām bhargo devasya dhīmahi Dhiyo *yo naḥ prachodayāt.*²

1. H Gr. S., 1. 5. 11.
2. Early authorities like Pā. Gr. S., II. 3. 10 prescribe the same prayer to the sun for the students of all the castes. Later writers begin to prescribe a different Mantra for the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas, probably influenced by the theory that Trishtubh metre is appropriate for the Kshatriya and the Jagatī for the Vaishya. The tradition however is not unanimous about these Mantras and may be taken to be unreliable as far as the early period is concerned. The following Mantras are prescribed by different authorities for the Kshatriya:— आ कृष्णेन रजसा वर्तमानो निवेशयन्नमृतं मर्त्यं च । हिरण्येन सविता रथेन देवो याति भुवनानि पश्यन् ॥ (According to Medhātithi on Manu, II. 38) हिरण्यपाणिः सविता विचर्षणिुरुभे द्यावापृथिवी अंतरीयते । अपामीवां बाधते वेति सूर्यमभि कृष्णेन रजसा द्यामृणोति ॥ (According to Nārāyaṇa on S. Gr. S. II. 5) The Mantras for the Vaishyas are said to be the following:— विश्वा रूपाणि प्रतिमुंचते कविः प्रासावीद्भद्रं द्विपदे चतुष्पदे । वि नाकमख्यत्सविता वरेण्योऽनु प्रयाणमुषसो विराजति ॥ (According to Medhātithi on Manu II. 38, Śātātapa and Laugākshī quoted in VMS., p. 430 and Aparārka on Yāj I. 15) P. T. Q.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 279 The prayer made to the sun in this Mantra is quite appropriate for the student to whom it was first taught. For a successful and brilliant career, what is most essential for the student is the possession of an efficient intellect. Health, wealth, good memory are all desirable, but more important than them all is an energetic and stimulating intellect; it is the power conferred by the latter that has enabled man to establish his supremacy over the Nature. It is therefore quite appropriate that the prayer offered by every Aryan, morning and evening, should urge the sun to endow him with a brilliant intellect, and also to give a proper stimulus to it. Mere intellect is not (Continued from the last page) युंजते मन उत युंजते धियः विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः । वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः ॥ (According to Aś. Gr. S., III. 7 and Vā. Gr. S., 6) हंसः शुचिषद्वसुरन्तरिक्षसद्धोता वेदिषदतिथिर्दुरोणसत् । नृषद्वरसद्दतसद्व्योमसदब्जा गोजा ऋतजा अद्रिजा ऋतम् ॥ (According to Nārāyaṇa on Manu, II. 38)

1. We have seen above how the Gāyatrī Mantra is naturally very appropriate for the student and the householder. It was later regarded as the very essence of the Vedas, and so quite mysterious meaning began to be read in it. Compare for instance the view of Bṛihat-Parāśara, IV 77-77 :— तत्प्रकृतिः स स्वांतं विकारो बुद्धिरेव च । तुरित्येतदहंकारं वशब्दं विद्धि पापहम् ॥ रेश्पर्शं तु णि रूपं च यं रसं गंधमत्र भम् । गो श्रोत्रं दे त्वचं वै त्र' चक्षुः स्य रसता तथा ॥ र्धी नासा च म वाचा च हि हस्तौ धि च पादद्वयम् । यो उपस्थ मुखं योऽन्यो नः खं प्रकारमारुतम् ॥ चो। तेजो द् जलं याक्ष्मा गायत्र्यास्तत्त्वचिंतनम् ॥ So also about the significance of the Vyāhṛiti letters, Kūrmapurāna, uttarārdha, 14, 53 and Ādi-Purāna, Adi, 53. 54-5 maintain that they denote Pradhāna, Purusha and Kāla ; or Vishṇu, Brahmā and Maheśa; or Satva, Rajas and Tamas respectively. Cf. प्रधानं पुरुषः कालो विष्णुर्ब्रह्मा महेश्वरः । सत्वं रजस्तमस्तिस्रः क्रमाद् व्याहृतयः स्मृताः ।

280 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. sufficient if it has no capacity to receive proper stimulation. The prayer is offered to the sun because he was regarded as the one and universal source of stimulation for both the animate and the inanimate world. Investiture with Staff; Its Significance :—With the learning of the Gāyatrī Mantra, the student begins his journey on the road to knowledge; he was there- fore invested with a staff, which was a traveller’s symbol in olden days. While accepting it, the student prayed that with divine grace he may reach the goal of his arduous journey¹. The staff exhorted the student to become a careful watchman, charged with the duty of guarding the Vedas.² It served the purpose of making the student self-confident and self-reliant, when he was out in the forest to collect the sacred fuel, or travelling in darkness or entering an unknown river or tank.³ It was also useful in controlling the cattle of the teacher, if it was necessary for the student to look after them. Ceremonial Begging :—The student was expected to maintain himself by begging cooked food everyday; so the practice commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The begging on the first day however was a ceremonial affair, for the boy was to approach only such persons as would not refuse his request. He would therefore first go to his mother and then her sister and then other relatives. In the modern Upanayana ritual this ceremonial begging has assumed the proportions of an imposing and stately procession, wending its way through the main thoroughfares of the town or village.

1. Ma. Gr., S., 1. 22. 11.
2. Vā. Gr. S., 6.
3. Aparārka on I. 29.

I, B] UPANAYANA RITUAL 281 **Medhajanana Ritual :—**For three days after the Upanayana, the student was said to remain in an embryonic condition ; it was on the fourth day that his spiritual birth took place. The preceptor, who was now in the position of the father, then performed the Medhājanana ritual for sharpening the memory, intellect and grasping power of the student. Prayer was offered that the student should be favoured with an intelligence as attractive as cows, as vigorous as studs and as brilliant as the solar rays ; it should be equally effective in mechanical, material and spiritual spheres.¹ Medhājanana ritual marked the termination of the Upanayana ceremony. **Significance of the ritual :—**At the time when the significance of the Upanayana ritual and Mantras was perfectly grasped, a very powerful impression must have been produced on the mind of all the parties partici- pating in the ceremony through the various suggestions conveyed to them by the different elements in the ritual. The ritual heralded the beginning of a new epoch in the student's life, characterised by dignity, decorum and discipline. The scholar was to regard himself as a self-reliant traveller bound for the realm of knowledge; the journey was to be long and arduous, but if there was singleness of purpose, devotion to. studies and perfect accord between him and his teachers, he would

1. त्वं नो मेधे प्रथमा गोभिरश्वेभिरागहि । त्वं सूर्यस्य रश्मिभिस्त्वं नो असि यज्ञिया ॥ यां मेधामृभवो विदुर्यां मेधामसुरा विदुः । ऋषयो भद्रां मेधां यां विदुस्तां मय्या वेशयामसि ॥ A. V., VI 108, 1, 3. Ribhus were famous for their mechanical skill and Asuras for their material civilization.

282 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. surely reach his goal. For, divine help and co-operation were enlisted on his behalf; even death could not touch him if he properly followed the rules of his order (S. Br., XI. 2. 6; B. D. S., I. 3). His personality will develop like that of Indra and his intelligence will glow up like the refulgent flame of God Fire. He will find nothing relating to his literary goal impossible if he worked with faith, assiduousness and determination. What better ideas can be conveyed to a young scholar at the beginning of his education? SECTION C RITUALS DURING THE COLLEGE SESSION Introduction :—Rituals were naturally prescribed at the beginning and at the end of the annual school session, as they were at the beginning and at the end of the educational course. In pre-historic times the annual session of schools and colleges began soon after the commencement of the rainy season. when the sowing operations were over and crops had began to sprout. This usually happened by the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa¹ (August); so the ritual of Chhandasām- upākarman i. e. of 'gathering the Vedic knowledge', was performed on that day. Later on it began to be described as Śrāvaṇī². In pre-historic times Vedic literature was not extensive; so a college term of

1. The full moon days of Āshāḍha, Śrāvaṇa and Bhādrapada are mentioned by different authorities as appropriate days for Upākarma. (Cf. Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 2-3; Kh. Gr. S., III, 2, 14; Hi. Gr. S., II, 18, 1). Rainy season is receding back every century and it commences in different months in different provinces of India. Hence this divergence about the appropriate season for Upākarma.
2. Śrāvaṇī is a relatively modern name for the ritual. In early times it denoted the Nāga worship ritual performed on the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa; when this ritual went out of vogue, the name was transferred to the Chhandasām-Upākarma ritual, because that too was usually performed on the same day.

I, C] UPĀKARMA RITUAL 283 about five or six months was found to be sufficient for mastering it. The ritual of Chhandasām-utsarjana, i. e. the cessation of Vedic studies, was therefore performed on the full moon day of Pausha or Māgha (February- March). In later times when the Vedic literature became very extensive, and more branches of learning were developed like grammar, philology, logic, philosophy and Dharmaśāstra, the duration of the annual term was extended over practically the whole year. Curiously enough, owing to the force of the established tradition, the Utsarjana ceremony still continued to be performed in February or March, though the college studies did not cease at that time. At present the ritual is not performed at its proper time but combined with the Upākarma ritual. This practice goes back to medieval times. **Upakarma or Sravani; its Significance :—**The statement that Śrāvaṇī denotes a ritual performed at the beginning of the college session may appear fanciful to the modern Hindu, who is accustomed to associate it with the annual replacement of the sacred thread, but there is ample and clear evidence to justify it. Our authorities declare that the ritual was to be performed only by the teacher along with his students when they had reassembled at the beginning of the session¹. It was believed that the presiding teacher would get in the course of time as many students as was the number of sesasums offered as oblations in this ritual²; some texts lay down special formulas to be

1. अध्येष्यमाणाः अध्याप्यैरन्वारब्ध..........। Āś. Gr. S., 3.4.10. समारब्धेष्वन्तेवासिषु.... ...उपाकर्म कुर्वीत । सहान्तेवासिभिः ग्रामादभिनिष्क्रम्य........उत्सर्जनविधिः । Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 3. ff.
2. स यावन्तं गणमिच्छेत्तावन्तस्तिलानातर्थफलेन जुहुयात् । P. Gr. S., II. 10.

284 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. performed by teachers ambitious to have a large number of scholars¹. In some places there was the custom requiring the teacher to give a feast to his students on the day of Śrāvaṇī². It would thus be clear that the ritual of Śrāvaṇī was originally confined only to teachers and students and was performed on the opening day of the annual session. Prevention of Wastage in Education :—Later on, however, it came to be prescribed for the whole community primarily to prevent wastage in education. We are all aware how a large number of students lose their study habits and forget a good deal of what they had learnt in their schools and colleges, when they settle down as householders pursuing their own professions. The same thing happened in the past. It was however regarded as a serious disaster in ancient times, as the modern facilities of books and libraries were then non-existent. In the course of time there- fore educationalists began to feel that steps must be taken to ensure that even householders would set apart some time in the year for revising their studies. Some of them, like Śvetaketu, advocated that they should be asked to spend two months every year in their old colleges for this purpose. The majority however felt that it is impracticable to suggest to householders that they should give up their professions for two months every year in order to keep themselves in touch with their studies³. They therefore proposed that the

1. अन्तेवासिनां योगमिच्छञ्जपं जपति....। Vā. Gr. S., 7.
2. सब्रह्मचारिणश्च उपसमेतान्भोजयेदाचार्यः J. Gr. S., I. 14.
3. निवेशे वृत्ते संवत्सरे द्वौ द्वौ मासौ समाहितः आचार्यकुले वसेद्भूयः श्रुतमिच्छन्निति श्वेतकेतुः । एतेन ह्यहं योगेन भूयः पूर्वस्माच्छ्रुतमकरव- मिति । तच्छास्त्रैर्विप्रतिषिद्धम् । निवेशे हि वृत्ते नैयमिकानि श्रूयन्ते । Ā. D. S., I. 1. 2. 12.

I, C] UPĀKARMA RITUAL 285. monsoon time should be devoted to the task of revising their studies. They could easily do this at home, if they only would set apart a little time for the work every day. It was therefore decided to lay it down that householders also should join the students in the Srāvaṇī ritual and take a vow to revise their studies. Students performing the Śrāvaṇī were to prosecute their studies at their schools and colleges; householders taking part in it were to revise them at home, devoting special time for the purpose and observing the rules of the student-life as far as practicable¹. **Sravani Ritual; Its Critical Survey :—**When it is remembered that Śrāvaṇī was a ritual performed by teachers and students at the beginning of the college session, and by others at the onset of the monsoon when the annual period of revision of studies commenced, we can well anticipate its nature and details. The ritual differed with different Vedic schools,² but there is one central idea common to them all, viz., on the opening day, Vedic and sacrificial deities should be offered oblations, presiding deities over intellect, memory and imagination should be propitiated, and a tribute of gratefulness should be

1. न मांसमश्रीयान्न श्राद्धम्। न लोमानि संहारयेत्। न स्त्रियमुपेयादृ तौ जायामुपेयात्। J. Gr. S., Upākarma section. 2 Thus the followers of the Rigveda used to recite the opening and concluding verses of each of the ten books of their Veda. The followers of the Yajurveda used to offer oblations to all the Vedas, Itihāsa and Purāṇa and pay tribute to the celebrated scholars of their own school like Kṛishṇa Dvaipāyana, Vaiśampāyana, and Tittiri (the authors of the Veda), Ātreya, the author of the Pada-pāṭha, Kauṇḍinya, the vṛittikāra, Baudhāyana, the pravachanakāra, Āpastamba the Sūtrakāra and to other celebrities like Satyāshāḍha, Hiraṇyakeśin, Vājasaneya, Yājñavalkya, Bhāradvāja and Agniveśya [Bau. Gr. S., III. 1]. The followers of the Sāmaveda invoked the memory of their own doctors like Jaimini, Tālavakāra, Râṇāyani, Bhāguri, etc.

286 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. paid to the intellectual giants of the past, who have enriched the national literature. It was a very happy idea indeed to remind the students of the deep debt of gratitude they all owed to the literary celebrities of the past on the very opening day of the session. When they paid tribute to them, their ambition was naturally fired into imitating their glorious example. They thus commenced their annual studies with zest, vigour and ambition, hoping one day to equal the ancients in their achievements. When the ritual was extended to householders in later times, it reminded them of their duty to be up-to-date in their own branches of learning. It is a pity indeed that the modern educational system has not got a ceremony of similar import. Sravani and the Sacred Thread :—The critical reader may now naturally enquire as to the causes that have led to the close association of Śrāvaṇī with the change of the sacred thread. The renewal of the sacred thread was a minor element in the ritual ; most of our authorities do not even refer to it. At the time of most of the Vratas (vows) and Sanskāras, a new sacred thread, staff, girdle, etc., were to be worn by students. Śrāvaṇī was no exception ; on this occasion also they discarded their old sacred threads, staffs, girdles, etc., and substituted them by new ones,—a pro- cedure somewhat similar to that of the modern student, who usually gets new clothes prepared when he leaves home for joining his college. By a strange irony of fate, the most insignificant element in this ritual has now assumed an altogether disproportionate importance and its real nature and significance have been forgotten altogether. Utsarjana Ritual : This was performed at the end of the college term sometime in February or March.

I, D] SAMĀVARTANA RITUAL 287 The procedure was more or less the same as that on the opening day. Respectful homage was once more paid to the Vedic deities, mental and intellectual powers and the literary giants of the past before the students dispersed home from their schools or colleges. SECTION D. SAMĀVARTANA¹ OR CONVOCATION RITUAL Who were eligible? Samāvartana or Snāna² ceremony was performed at the end of the Brahma- charya period to mark the termination of the education course³. When however in the course of time, the origi- nal nature and purport of the ritual were forgotten and the Upanayana began to be regarded as an obligatory and bodily Sanskāra, this ritual also came to be performed in all cases, irrespective of the consideration as to whether any educational course was followed by the youth or not. In early times it was performed when the education of the youth was over; marriage usually followed, but by no means immediately. In later times the ritual came to be performed as a kind of necessary formality just before the marriage, when it was settled.⁴ (VMS. p. 575)

1. Samāvartana literally means 'returning'; it refers to the return of the student to his home after finishing the course at the teacher's home.
2. This term refers to the bath given to the student on the occasion.
3. Some held that it should not be performed in the case of those who were not able to interpret the Vedic texts committed to memory by them; Cf. अन्यो वेदपाठी । न तस्य ज्ञानम् । M. Gr. S., I. 2. 8.
4. In northern India, the custom was introduced to perform it immediately after Upanayana.