प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

UNIVERSAL LIBRARY OU_164725 UNIVERSAL LIBRARY

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OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Call No. 370.901 Accession No. 23700 Author A46E Altekar AS. Title Education in ancient This book should be returned on or before the date last marked below.

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EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA BY DR. A. S. ALTEKAR, M. A., LL. B., D. LITT. Manindrachandra Nandi Professor and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University. ( Revised & Enlarged ) BENARES NAND KISHORE & BROS., Educational Publishers. Second Edition.] 1944 [ Price Rs. 4/8/-

All rights, including those of translation and abridgement are reserved by the Author. BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

1. History of Important Towns and Cities in Gujarat and Kathiawar. Out of Print.
2. History of the Village Communities in Western India. Out of Print.
3. The Rāshṭrakūṭas and their Times Oriental Book Agency, Poona 2 Rs. 7/8/-
4. Śilāhāras of Western India Re. 1/-
5. Hindu Scriptures and Social Reform As. /4/-
6. Benares, Past and Present Re. 1/-
7. The Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation Rs. 6/- Books Nos. 4 to 7 above can be had of The Culture Publication House, New D/2, Benares Hindu University. Printed in India by JNANMANDAL PRESS, BENARES, PP. 1—96 THE TARA PRINTING WORKS, BENARES. 97—319

CONTENTS PAGE Preface ... ... ... ... iii Abbreviations and Transliteration ... ... vii Chap. I. The Conception and Ideals of Education ... ... 1 Chap. II. Some Educational Principles and Postulates ... ... ... 22 Chap. III. The Teacher and the Student ... 48 Chap. IV. Educational Organisation and Finance ... ... ... 70 Chap. V. Some Educational Centres and Institutions ... ... 103 Chap. VI. Higher Literary Education; Curriculum, Method of Teaching and Examinations ... ... 143 Chap. VII. Primary Education ... ... 170 Chap. VIII Professional & Useful Education ... 184 Chap. IX. Female Education ... ... 204 Chap. X. A General Resume ... ... 225 Section A, Buddhism and Ancient Indian Education ... 225 Section B, Period-wise Survey ... 233 Chap. XI. Achievements and Failures ... 241

ii APPENDICES PAGE. Appendix I. Educational rituals ... 265 IA Vidyārambha ... 265 IB Upanayana ... ... 268 " IC College Session Rituals ... 282 " ID Convocation Ritual ... 287 " IE Ayurvedic Upanayana ... 289 " IF Dhanurvedic Upanayana ... 291 " IG Dhanurvedic Convocation ... 292 Appendix II. Significance of the Sacred Thread 294 Appendix III. Convocation Addresses ... 300 Appendix IV. Four Vedas, Six Aṅgas, etc. ... 305 Appendix V. Technical Terms and Dates. ... 30 Select Bibliography ... ... ... 311 Index ... ... ... ... 314

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Considerable changes have been made in Education in Ancient India while presenting its second edition to the public. The first edition was in the form of a research work primarily intended for the students of Ancient Indian History and Culture. The reception that was given to it, however, showed that the general public was also interested in the subject and would welcome its presentation in a less technical and more popular form. Several Universities prescribed the work as one of the text books for the paper dealing with the History of Indian Education at the B. T. examination, and it appeared that the teachers and students of the Training Colleges would welcome the treatment of the subject matter of the book, not only from the point of the orientalist but also from that of the educationalist. Further thought given to the subject also showed that a few more topics should be included in the book in order to make the treatment complete and comprehensive. A considerable portion of the book has, therefore, been entirely rewritten for the second edition. Tech- nical and detailed discussions have been transferred to foot-notes and appendices. A new appendix (appendix V) has been added, which explains technical terms and gives the dates of authors, works, kings and travellers incidentally referred to in the work. It is hoped that this appendix will give a proper chrono- logical background to readers not acquainted with ancient Indian political and cultural history. While rewriting the book the view point of the educationalist has also been constantly kept before the mind. The treatment is more comparative than

iv was the case in the first edition; the views and theories of Greek and Roman thinkers and medieval and modern educationalists have been referred to, wherever necessary, for a comparative estimate. Particular attention has been given to the method of teaching and curricula that prevailed in the different periods of Ancient Indian History. The first edition began with the chapter on Educational Rituals. As this topic is not of particular interest either to the educationalist or to the general reader, it has been transferred to the end of the book as Appendix I. The book now opens with a discussion of the Conception and Ideals of Education, the section on the Conception of Education being entirely new. The second chapter which deals with Some Educational Principles and Postulates is substantially new. It is hoped that students of Education will find it to be a very useful back-ground for the study of ancient Indian education. Its concluding section, dealing with the caste system and education, will give information about the social life in ancient India sufficient to understand the educational problems. The next chapter dealing with the Teacher and the Student presents in a succinct form the information given in chapters II and III of the first edition. Chapter IV dealing with Educational Organisation and Finance is to a great extent a new addition, and it is hoped that the educationalist as well as the orientalist will find here a good deal of new and interesting information on the subject. The concluding portion of this chapter dealing with the Educational Finance is based upon the chapter on Society, State and Education of the first edition. The next five chapters dealing with Some Educational Centres, Higher Education, Primary Education, Profes-

v sional and Useful Education and Female Education occurred in the first edition, but they have been revised, rearranged and rewritten in a more succinct form for this edition. Chapter X, which gives a General Resume of the subject, is a new addition. The line of treatment so far followed in the book isolated the different topics like Primary Education, Female Education, etc., and traced their history and development from age to age. This method of treatment no doubt enables the reader to get a clear idea of the development of each theme, but does not give him the picture of the educational condition as a whole of the different epochs of Indian History. The new chapter seeks to meet this need. In its first section it gives a resume of the contribution of the Buddhism to Ancient Indian Education and in its second section it gives a bird's-eye view of the general educational condition and achievements of each of the four succeeding epochs into which Ancient Indian History has been divided for this purpose. It is hoped that both the student and the general reader will find this chapter very useful. This edition like the first one concludes with a discussion of the achievements and failures of Ancient Indian Education. Appendix I deals with different educational rituals discussed in Chapter I of the first edition. Appendices II and III are identical with Appendices A and B of the first edition. Appendices IV and V are practically speaking new. They explain some technical expressions and supply dates of kings, authors and travellers, referred to in the work.

'vi It is hoped that the second edition of 'Education in Ancient India' will make a wide appeal not only to the resarch workers in Indology, but also to the general readers and the students of education, and succeed in familiarising them with the main features, ideals and achievements of the Ancient Indian Educational System. Benares Hindu University. 10-8-1944. A. S. ALTEKAR.

1] THE CONCEPTION AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION 9 inculcation of civic and social duties, promotion of social efficiency and the preservation and spread of national cul- ture may be described as the chief aims and ideals of ancient Indian education. Let us now see what were the views of our educationalists about each of them. Infusion of Piety and Religiousness: Religion played a large part in life in ancient India and teachers were usually priests. It is therefore no wonder that infusion of a spirit of piety and religiousness in the mind of the rising generation should have been regarded as the first and foremost aim of education. The rituals which were performed at the beginning of both the literary and professional education,—primary as well as higher,—the religious observances (vratas), which the student had to observe during the educational course, the daily prayers which he offered morning and evening, the religious festivals that were observed with eclat in the school or the preceptor's house almost every month,—all these tended to inspire piety and religiousness in the mind of the young student. It was the spiritual background that was thus provided which was expected to help the student to withstand the temptations of life. The very atmosphere, in which he lived and breathed, impressed upon him the reality of the spiritual world and made him realise that though his body may be a product of nature, his mind, intellect and soul belong to the world of spirit, the laws of which ought to govern his conduct, mould his character and determine the ideals of his life. Limitations on Religiousness: Though the edu- cational system thus provided the background of piety and religiousness, its aim was not to induce the student to renounce the world and become a wanderer in the quest of God like the Buddha or Tulsidas. Even in the case of Vedic students, who intended to follow a religious

10 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. career, only a microscopic minority used to remain life- long Brahmachārins, pursuing the spiritual quest: the vast majority was expected to become and did become householders. The direct aim of all education, whether literary or professional, was to make the student fit to become a useful and pious member of society. Formation of Character: The illumination and power, which men and women received from educa- tion, was primarily intended to transform and ennoble their nature. The formation of character by the proper development of the moral feeling was therefore the second aim of education. Like Locke, ancient Indian thinkers held that mere intellectual attainments were of less consequence than the development of a proper moral feeling and character. The Vedas being held as revealed, educationalists naturally regarded their preservation as of utmost national importance; yet they unhesitatingly declare that a person of good character with a mere smattering of the Vedic knowledge is to be preferred to a scholar, who though well versed in the Vedas, is impure in his life, thoughts and habits.¹ Montaigne has observed, "Cry out, 'there is a learned man' and people will flock round him."; cry out 'there is a good man', and people will not look at him." Indian thinkers were aware of this natural human tendency and wanted to counteract it by pointing out that character was more important than learning. One thinker goes to the extent of saying that he alone is learned who is righteous.² This opinion tallies remarkably with that of Socrates, who held that virtue is knowledge. Evil effects of 1 सावित्रीमात्रसारोपि, वरं विप्रः सुयन्त्रितः । नायन्त्रितस्त्रिवेदोपि सर्वाशी सर्वविक्रयी ॥ Manu, II. 118. 2 धर्मं हि यो वर्धयते स पण्डितः । Mbh., XII. 321.78.

1] THE CONCEPTION AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION 11 divorcing power from virtue, intellectual and scientific progress from moral and spiritual values, which are being so vividly illustrated in the west in the modern age, were well realised by ancient Indians; they have therefore insisted that, while a man is being educated, his regard for morality ought to be developed, his feeling of good will towards human beings ought to be strength- ened and his control over his mind ought to be perfected, so that he can follow the beacon light of his conscience.¹ In other words, education ought to develop man's ideal nature by giving him a sure moral feeling and by enabling him to control his original animal nature. The tree of education ought to flower in wisdom as well as in virtue, in knowledge as well as in manners. How Character was to be Formed: Direct injunctions to develop a sense of moral rectitude were scattered over almost every page of books intended for students; they were also orally given to them by their teachers every now and then. Apart from them, how- ever, the very atmosphere in which students lived, was calculated to give a proper turn to their character. They were under the direct and personal supervision of their teacher, who was to watch not only over their intellectual progress but also over their moral behaviour. Ancient Indians held that good character cannot be divorced from good manners; the teacher was to see that in their every day life students followed the rules of etiquette and good manners towards their seniors, equals and inferiors. These rules afforded an imperceptible but effective help in the formation of character. The rituals ¹ Compare the view of Herbert: The aim of education should be to instill such ideas as will develop both the understanding of the moral order and a conscientious spirit in carrying it out. Great Educationalists, pp, 175-6.

12 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. which students occasionally performed and the prayers which they regularly offered every day were calculated to emphasise upon their mind the fact that the student-life was a consecrated one and that its ideals could be realised only by those who did not swerve from the strict and narrow path of duty. Examples of national heroes and heroines like Hariśchandra, Bhīshma, Rāma, Lakshmaṇa, Hanumān, Sītā Sāvitrī and Draupadī, which were pro- minently placed before students, also served to mould their character in a powerful manner. Character was thus built up partly by the influence of direct injunctions, partly by the effect of continued discipline and partly by the glorification of national heroes, held in the highest reverence by society. Personality not Repressed: There is a general impression that Hindu educationalists suppressed persona- lity by prescribing a uniform course of education and enforcing it with an iron discipline. Such however was not the case. The caste system had not become hidebound down to c. 500 B.C. and till that time a free choice of profession or career was possible both in theory and practice. Later on when the system became rigid; the theory no doubt was that everybody should follow his hereditary profession, but the practice permitted consider- able freedom to enterprising individuals, as will be shown in the following chapter. It is wrong to conclude from some stray passages that the whole of the Brahmana community, if not the whole of the Aryan community, was compelled to devote twelve years to the task of memorising the Vedic texts.¹ Kshatriyas and Vaishyas never took seriously to the Vedic learning; only a section of the Brahmanas dedicated themselves to the Vedic studies, while the rest of the community learnt only ¹ E. g., Manu, III. 1; II. 168.

1] THE CONCEPTION AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION 13 a few Vedic hymns necessary for their daily use, and devoted their main energy to the study of the subjects of their own choice like logic, philosophy, literature, poetics or law. The educational curriculum of the Smṛitis represents the Utopian idealism of the Brahmana theologian and not the actual reality in society. Development of Personality: The development of personality was in fact the third aim of the educational system. This was sought to be realised by eulogising the feeling of self-respect, by encouraging the sense of self- confidence, by inculcating the virtue of self-restraint and by fostering the powers of discrimination and judgment. The student was always to remember that he was the custodian and the torch-bearer of the culture of the race. Its welfare depended upon his proper discharge of his duties. If the warrior shines on the battlefield, or if the king is successful as a governor, it is all due to their proper training and education (A. V., XI. 15. 17.). To support the poor student was the sacred duty of society, the non- performance of which would lead to dire spiritual cala- mities. A well trained youth, who had finished his education, was to be honoured more than the king himself. It is but natural that such an atmosphere should develop the student's self-respect in a remarkable manner. Influence of Self-confidence: Self-confidence was also fostered equally well. The Upanayana ritual, as we shall see in Appendix I. B, used to foster self- confidence by pointing out that divine powers would co- operate with the student and help him on to the achieve- ment of his goal, if he on his part did his duty well. Poverty need not depress him; he was the ideal student who would subsist by begging his daily food. If he was willing to work in his spare time, he could demand and get free education from any teacher or institution. Self-

14 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. reliance is the mother of self-confidence, and the Hindu educational system seeks to develop it in a variety of ways, as we shall see in the following pages. Uncertainty of the future prospect did not damp the student's self-con- fidence. If he was following a professional course, his career was already determined. There was no overcrowd- ing or cut-throat competition in professions. If he was taking religious and liberal education, poverty was to be the ideal of his life. His needs ought to be, and as a matter of fact were, few, and the state and society supplied them well. Influence of Self-restraint: The element of self-restraint, that was emphasised by the educational system, further served to enrich the student's personality. Self-restraint that was emphasised was distinctly different from self-repression. Simplicity in life and habits was all that was insisted upon. The student was to have a full meal, only it was to be a simple one. The student was to have sufficient clothing, only it was not to be foppish. The student was to have his recreations, only they were not to be frivolous. He was to lead a life of perfect chastity, but that was only to enable him to be an efficient and healthy householder when he married. It will be thus seen that what the educationalists aimed at did not result in self-repression, but only promoted self-restraint that was so essential for the development of a proper personality. Nor was this self-restraint enforced by Spartan ways of correction and punishment. The teacher was required to use persuasion and spare the rod as far as possible. He was liable to be prosecuted if he used undue force. Self-discipline was developed mainly by the formation of proper habits during the educational course. Discrimination and Judgment Developed: It may