प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

64 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. may have undertaken in the town or city. It will be thus seen that the educational system tried to reproduce in the student life the atmosphere and the conditions exist- ing outside in actual life both in the case of religious and industrial students.) The Student Life and the Duty to beg : The begging of the daily food has been enjoined on the stu- dent as a religious duty. This injunction occurs in sacred texts from the Vedic age downwards;¹ nay, some texts lay it down that the student must beg his food both morning and evening.² It has been declared that no food is so holy for the student as the food he obtains by begging at midday.³ Why begging food was prescribed : The rule of begging was laid down for the student in order to teach him humility and make him realise that it was due to the sympathy and help of society that he was learning the heritage of the race, and being enabled to follow a profession that would secure him a living. This rule further removed the distinction between the rich and the poor and brought education within the reach of the poorest. It was also useful in reminding society of its duty and responsibility about the education of the rising generation. Civilisation will not progress if each gene- ration does not take proper steps to transmit its heritage to the next. Hindu thinkers therefore made it an incum- bent duty for all householders to offer cooked food to the begging student; a householder refusing his request 1 A. V., XI. 5. 9.; Go. Gr. S., II; 10; Dr. Gr. S. II. 5. 16 Manu II. 65 2 Jai. Gr. S., I. 18; Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 3. 24-5 3 शाकभक्षाः पयोभक्षा ये चान्ये यावशाकिनः। सर्वे ते भैक्षभैक्ष्यस्य कलां नार्हन्ति षोडशीम् ॥ Atri in SCS P. 111.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 65 was threatened with serious spiritual sanctions.¹ In medieval universities of Europe, a very large number of students used to maintain themselves by begging out of sheer necessity; in ancient India begging was elevated into a duty of the student life. It may however be point- ed out that our educationalists have pointed out that a student can beg food just sufficient for his needs; if he collected more, he would be guilty of theft.² Similarly he could not have recourse to begging when his education was over.³ Society was morally bound to support every poor student who was honestly struggling to educate himself; when however he was educated, he was expected to stand on his own legs. How far was the Rule to Beg Followed: There is clear evidence to show that Smṛitis themselves did not expect the rule of begging to be literally followed by all students, both rich and poor. They have laid down a penance, only if the student did not beg at least once in the week.⁴ This shows that the rule of begging was a mere formality in the case of rich students and a reality only in the case of the poor ones.⁵ When circumstances 1 Cf. स्त्रीणां प्रत्याचक्षाणां समाहितो ब्रह्मचारी इष्टं दत्तं हुतं प्रजां पशूं ब्रह्मवर्चसमन्नाद्यं वृङ्क्ते । Ap. Dh. S. 1, 3, 24-25, 2 आहारादधिकं वर्णी न क्वचिद्भैक्षमाचरेत् । युज्यते स्तेयदोषेण कामतोऽधिकमाहरन् ॥ Manu in VMS. p. 486. 3 समावृत्तस्य भिक्षाऽशुचिकरा । B. D. S., II. 1. 53; see also S. Br., XI. 3. 3. 7. 4 न चैनं सप्तम्यभिक्षित् यायात् । B. D. S., I. 2. 52. 5 There are also other indications in Smritis to show that begging was not a reality in the case of all. It has been laid down by Sumantu (quoted in VMS. p. 486) that students under 12 should take their food early in the morning; begging should be resorted only after 12. अश्नीयादष्टवर्षस्तु ब्रह्मचारी प्रगे सदा । तदूर्ध्वमाद्वादशाब्दादश्नीयात्सङ्गवे सदा ॥ तदूर्ध्वं गृहिष्वद्भिक्षां भोजनं च समाचरेत् । The view of Krishṇājini is also the same, Ibid. 5

66 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. permitted, Smṛitis have allowed students to take their food in the house of their preceptors.¹ Well-to-do students at Taxila were generally living and boarding at their teachers' houses. In richly endowed colleges like those at Nālandā, Salotgi and Ennāyiram, arrangements were made by the college administration for the free boarding of students from generous endowments received for the purpose; begging food was not necessary at these places. Sometimes, as at Benares for instance, such arrangements were independently made by rich citizens of the locality.² Begging food was not necessary at such places. The Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang attributes the fame of Indian scholars for deep scholarship to the circumstance that students in India have not to worry about their food, clothing and medicines.³ It will be thus seen that begging was elevated into a duty for the student, primarily for the purpose of bringing education within the reach of the poorest, and secondarily for removing the superiority complex from the mind of rich students; he was the ideal student who lived by begging and not he who lived on his family's support. The rule was not intended to be literally followed by all students every day. Rules of Discipline: Let us now survey and com- ment upon the rules of discipline prescribed for students.⁴ It was felt that student's life should be characterised by dignity, decorum and self-discipline and should be devoted to acquire a grounding not only in learning but also in the 1 भैक्षाचार्यवृत्तिः स्यात् । M. Gr. S., 1 1. 3; see also Manu, II. 142. 2 Losaka Jātaka, No. 41 (C. 500 B. C.) and Bernier p. 335, (17th century A. D.) both refer to the arrangements made by the rich citizens of Benares for distributing khichdī to poor students. 3 Beal, Life of Yuan Chwang, p. 113. 4 For the rules of the student life, see Manu, II, 175ff. ; Yāj. I. 28 ff.; Gau. Dh. S. I. 2; As. Gr. S. I. 22; Dr. Gr. S. II. 5 etc.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 67 culture and religion of the race. In order to infuse piety, it was therefore laid down that they should regu- larly offer the prescribed prayers and sacrifices both morning and evening. In order to inculcate good etiquette and manners, it was insisted that they should show proper courtesy and respect to their elders and teachers. The duties towards the latter have been described already. In order to develop character, em- phasis was given on moral earnestness; lying, slandering and backbiting were never to be indulged in. They were to observe strict celibacy even in thought and speech. Strength of mind and character is developed if we learn to deny to ourselves our natural desires and incli- nations¹; rules of discipline therefore laid down that articles like meat, sweetmeats, spices, ornaments and garlands, which have a natural attraction for the youth and tend to accentuate the sex impulse, should be tabooed to students. Even royal students, staying in a Gurukula were not allowed to have any private purse, lest they should secretly purchase prohibited articles.² Plain living and high thinking was to be the student's ideal: they were to shave their heads clean or keep matted hair: no time was to be wasted in oiling, combing and dressing the hair. Students must take the bath once in the day, but pleasure baths were forbidden. Shoes, umbrellas and cots were not to be used as a general rule. Food and dress were to be simple but sufficient. The aim in prescribing these rules was to enable students to form a number of useful habits during the formative period of

1 This was the view of Locke also; Graves, Great Educationalists, p. 61. 2 The prince in Junha Jātaka could only promise that he could compensate the poor Brahmana for the breakage of this bowl only when he later returned to Benares and became a king. Obviously he had no privy purse (V. p. 456).

68 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. childhood and adolescence, which were expected to be of good use to them throughout their life. And finally students were to attend their classes regularly, listen to lectures attentively and master and digest carefully all that was taught before the school met the next day. How far Relaxation was Permitted: Of the above rules, those relating to religious duties and moral behaviour, were particularly emphasised and strictly enforced; modifications however were permitted in the case of the rest, if demanded by special circumstances. Thus the prohibition against the use of shoes and um- brellas was not rigorously enforced in ancient India as in ancient Sparta; the idea was that students should not be so soft as to require these articles when moving about on good roads in villages and towns¹ under normal circum- stances. Students going to thorny forests in search of the sacred fuel (samidhs) or undertaking a long journey to distant places like Taxila over the burning plains of northern India², were permitted the use of both the shoes and umbrellas. Similarly occasional exceptions were permitted in the case of the use of sweetmeats, when students were invited to some religious function or feast like a Śrāddha. The use of oils was permitted in some localities once a week probably after the shave³. Cots also were probably permitted in swampy or snake-infested areas. Were Rules of Discipline unreasonable? : The rules of discipline were on the whole reasonable for the age. They were intended to infuse piety, teach manners, 1 Cf. न ग्रामोपानहौ। Dr. G. S. II. 5. 2 See Tilamutthi Jātaka, No. 252, where students coming to Taxila from Benares are seen to be equipped with shoes and umbrellas. 3 Such was the case in the college at Tirumukhudal in the 11th century A. D.; see E. I, XXI. p. 223.

III] THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT 69 promote self-control, discipline the will and facilitate the formation of good habits. The complaint that they were too ascetic is not true; students were required only to control their passions and desires and not to kill them, as was recommended in the case of ascetics. Strict celibacy was insisted upon, but that was for the purpose of promoting concentration in studies and the development of the body. At the end of the course, students were enjoined to marry. At Sparta students' food was both plain and scanty. In India it was only plain; the educa- tionalists had realised that the body is developed and built up during the childhood and adolescence and have therefore permitted students to take as much food as was demanded by the needs of their developing constitution. In the light of these facts the observation of a recent writer that the student life in ancient India was very severe because it required a stay at a stranger's place, demanded a beggar's or a menial's life and denied all pleasures of life¹ will appear to be considerably wide of the mark. Society did not regard the student life as a proper period for enjoying the pleasures of life. Its standards of plain living also were naturally much different from those of the modern age, dominated by the novel, the drama and the cinema. Stay at a stranger's place was nothing else than the stay at a boarding house. The beggar's life was the mere ideal, recommended with a view to bring educa- tion within the reach of all; it was a reality only in the case of the poor and a mere formality in the case of the rest. Menial duties like personal service at the teacher's household were expected to be performed only by the poor students, who were given free tuition by the teacher; they were a mere formality in the case of the rest. 1 Bokil: The History of Education in India, Part I p. 151.

CHAPTER IV. EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION & FINANCE. Private teacher the pivot of the system-How organised in- stitutions arose-Organisation of Buddhist universities and Hindu temple- colleges-School and college buildings-Boardings for students-Payment of fees how far obligatory-Admission procedure-The size of classes- School hours-Duration of the college session-Holidays-Organisation and duration of courses-Longer courses for experts-Lifelong students Educational finance-The quota of ordinary men-Of rich men-The example of the Punjab--Government contribution in direct and indirect forms-Government help without Government control-State help in other countries in contemporary time. Introduction: The history of ancient Indian edu- cation extends over several centuries, and so we naturally come across different types of educational organisations in different ages. In the pre-historic period down to about 1000 B. C. the family was the only educational agency both for the literary and professional education: we have already shown in Chap. II how it used to dis- charge this function. As education began to become more and more complex and exacting, the specialist came into the field in the form of the private teacher. He continued to be in its sole and undisputed possession till about the early centuries of the Christian era, when organised educational institutions came into existence in connection with the Buddhist monasteries. In a few centuries, Hinduism copied the Buddhist example and organised its own temple colleges. Monastic universities and temple colleges were however confined to some famous centres of learning; private teachers still conti- nued to be the main stay of the educational system through- out the moffusil. In medieval times the Maṭhas of the various religious pontiffs (Āchāryas) used to organise

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 71 small centres for higher education, which co-operated with the private teacher in rendering the valuable service of keeping the lamp of learning burning in a dark age, when society was often over-whelmed by anarchy, inter- necine war and foreign rule. Private teachers: Private teachers have all along been the sheet anchor of the educational system. In the prehistoric period, the followers of different Vedas had no doubt formed their own literary organisations like the Parishads, the Śākhās, and the Charaṇas, but curiously enough these do not seem to have ever made any concerted effort to form educational institutions, which would hand down to the next generation the literature of which they were the custodians. This need not cause any surprise. The sacred texts required each Brahmana to devote himself to the cause of teaching in his individual capacity, and the injunction was very largely followed. Each learned Brahmana was thus an educational institution by himself. The Parishads or councils of famous scholars of the different centres or tribes therefore did not feel it necessary to organise public educational institutions of the modern type, worked with the co-operation and assistance of a number of teachers. Famous capitals and holy places like Taxila and Benares were centres of a number of famous scholars, but they also imparted education in their individual capacity, and did not as a rule combine to form any colleges. If the number of pupils under any teacher happened to be large, he would either engage an assistant teacher, or assign part of the work to brilliant advanced students.¹ Neither step however would change the individual character of the See Anabhirati Jātaka (II p. 185) and Mahadhammapala Jātaka (IV. p. 447) for the appointments of pittiachārayas and Jethantenva- sikas respectively.

72 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. school. How private teachers organised and imparted education and how they were supported has already been described in Chap. III. It may be observed in passing that in ancient Athens also education was for a long time imparted by private teachers and not in public institutions. The first real founder of public schools in Europe is believed to be Charlmaigne the Great (800 A. D.); his death however completely frustrated his schemes.¹ Rise of Organised Institutions : Corporate edu- cational institutions were first evolved in ancient India in connection with Buddhist monasteries. The Buddha had emphasised the vital importance of imparting systematic instructions to novices, who were required to be educated for ten years, not only in spiritual practices, but also in the study of the sacred literature, which required a good grounding in Pali and Sanskrit, logic and metaphysics. When Buddhist monasteries developed into big establish- ments from the time of Aśoka onwards, they naturally developed into centres of education. They were the counter parts of Hindu Gurukulas, where the Guru was the head, not of a family but of a monastery. At first they were intended for monks and nuns only, but later on for the lay population as well; for it was soon discovered that the best way of getting a good supply of novices of the right type and of propagating the religion among the masses was to mould the pliant minds of the young generation by taking up its education. Hindu educational institutions, so far known, are all later than the time of the Nālandā University (c. 400 A.D.). It is probable that the starting of organised public institutions for education may have been suggested to Hindus by the

¹ Staunton: The Great Schools of England, p. xv.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 73 transformation of Buddhist monasteries into colleges and Universities. Temple colleges started by Hindus were a natural reaction to the Buddhist monastic Universities. The Maṭhas of the Āchāryas (religious teachers and recluses) of the medieval times continued the same tradition.¹ Organisation of Buddhist Universities: We can get a fairly good idea of the organisation of Buddhist Universities from the accounts handed down to us about Nālandā and Vikramaśīlā, which were typical of their class. The whole establishment used to be in charge of a famous abbot (bhikshu). He was usually elected by the members of the Saṅgha. Character, scholarship and seniority were the factors usually taken into consideration. In the 9th century, a monk-scholar from near Jalālābad, who was on a pilgrimage to Bihar, was elected to be the principal of the University². This would show that local 1 It is interesting to note that in Europe also from about the 6th to the 11th century A. D. education was centered in monasteries. The causes were somewhat similar. Monks were required to read; so they had to be taught. They must have books and they must in turn teach novices to read and copy manuscripts. Hence arose monastic schools. After the closure of all the pagan schools by Justinian's decree in 529 A. D., monasteries became the sole schools for teaching. "They offered the only professional training, they were the only Universities of research; they alone served as publishing houses for the multiplication of books; they were the only libraries for the preservation of learning; they produced the only scholars. It was not till the 11th century that there was any education to speak of outside monastic schools, and not till the 13th century that there occurred marked changes in the character of education given in any institution; until then all these schools were taught by monks." Monroe, A Text-Book, pp. 255-261. 2 I. A., XVII, p. 307.

74 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch or provincial jealousies did not influence the election in any way. The abbot-principal used to be assisted by two councils, one academic and the other administrative. The academic council used to regulate admissions, deter- mine courses and assign work to different teachers. In later times when the granting of diplomas was introduced at Vikramaśīlā, it must have arranged for the holding of examinations as well. It was also in charge of the liabrary and its duties in this connection were onerous. In the pre-press days, libraries were not only store houses of books but also their publishers. They had to take steps to renew their own worn out manuscripts and to meet the constant demand of the outside public for copies of books in their possession. . The copying work was to some extent done by the monk teachers and pupils, but clerks also had to be engaged to cope with it. The administrative council was in charge of the general administration and finance. Construction and repairs of buildings, distribution of food, clothes and medicine, allotment of rooms in hostels, and assignment of monas- tic work fell within its purview. Above all, it was in charge of finances and used to take steps to realise the revenues of the estates given as endowments to the Institution. This work must have been fairly exacting and complicated in a big University like Nālandā, posses- sing a hundred or two hundred villages. Steps had to be taken to lease out the fields, to collect the corn due and to store and distribute it properly at the right time. Large staff must have been employed for the work. Organisation of Temple Colleges: South Indian nscriptions give us à vivid picture about the functioning of the temple colleges flourishing there, but throw very ittle light on their internal organisation. It would appear hat they were probably administered by the temple sub-

[IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 75 committee of the village council, within whose jurisdiction they fell. It was this sub-committee which administered the estates given as endowments and appointed the tea- chers of the institution. What subjects were to be taught and how many seats were to be reserved for each of them may have been settled by the temple committee in consul- tation with the views of the head of the institution. The latter was in charge of the internal administration. He supervised over the boarding houses, allotted seats to students, appointed servants for the messes and arranged for the supply of provisions. In some places even hospital arrangement was made for the need of students falling ill. The distribution of the teaching work, the supervision of the library and the maintenance of discipline also fell within the jurisdiction of the head of the Institution. School and College Building: We have seen already in Chap. II (pp. 32-3) how only a few educational institutions were located in sylvan solitudes. There is however no information as to what arrangements were made in these institutions for the housing of classes and the lodging of students. In fair weather the classes must have been held under the shades of trees; in the rainy season, some kind of humble tenements must have been found indispensable both for teaching and residence. As far as organised educational institutions like the Buddhist Universities or Hindu temple colleges are concerned, we have definite evidence to show that they used to provide good, spacious and often imposing buildings for their class rooms and hostels. At Nālandā there were eight big lecture halls and as many as three hundred small class rooms. The college buildings were stately and several storeys in height. The university of Vikramasīlā also was provided with several lecture halls by the Pāla emperors. Similar arrangements must have existed at other famous

76 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Buddhist centres of education. Military schools intended for aristocratic families were naturally housed in spacious and imposing buildings¹. Temple colleges were usually located in spacious halls and apartments adjoining the temples, to which they were attached. As far as private teachers were concerned, they usually held their classes in their own houses. This was not difficult for a well-to-do teacher; for the class usually consisted, as we shall soon see, of not more than 10 to 15 students. Sanskrit teachers of even moderate reputation could however usually succeed in building a small unostentatious building for their school out of subscriptions collected for the purpose in their own Tehsil or Taluka. Teachers with small houses used to repair to an adjoining temple or garden to carry on their classes. This practice prevailed in Benares during the medieval times. Lodging and Boarding Arrangements: Let us now survey the general features of the lodging and boarding arrangements made for students. It has been already shown in Chap. II how the ideal of the Gurukula required the student to stay under his teacher's roof or in a boarding house under his direct supervision. Well- to-do teachers in famous centres of education like Taxila used to arrange for the lodging and boarding of their students in their own houses.² It must be remembered in this connection that the number of students reading under one teacher was usually not more than 15 and he could thus arrange for their lodging and boarding. When public educational institutions came into existence, they used to invariably arrange for the lodging and boarding of students in hostels specially built for the purpose. Several

1 Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. IV, part iii, p. 111. 2 Jātaka No. 252.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 77 such hostels existed at Nālandā, Salotgi and Vikramaśilā. In these hostels, there were common messes run by the authorities through servants appointed for the purpose. Students' rooms were sometimes provided with a stone bench to sleep upon and nitches for keeping lamps and other sundry things; this arrangement prevailed at Nālandā as will become clear by a visit to its excavations. In some places, arrangements were also made to offer free clothing and medicines; some institutions like that at Nālandā in northern India and Malkapuram in south- ern India used to maintain hospitals for the needs of the 'sick students'². In some places like Salotgi, light also was supplied to students out of special endowments received for the purpose. In Bengal, till quite recent times, teachers of tols or Sanskrit schools used to collect subscriptions from well-to-do people in their districts and build small unpretentious mud houses for the resi- dence of students reading under them. It is quite possible that the same practice may have prevailed in ancient times in those localities which were carrying on the work of education in their own humble way, but had not become famous centres of education like Nālandā or Ennāyiram. These boarding houses were under the direct control and management of the teachers under whom the students were working. When however teachers were unable to make such arrangements, students had to shift for themselves. Rich students would often hire their own houses.³ Poor students would often stay in temple out-houses and subsist by begging⁴.

1 See Chap. VI. 2 S. I. E. R. for 1917. pp. 122-4. 3 Jātaka No. 456 4 This arrangement prevailed in Vijayanagara.

78 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. Payment of Fees: No Stipulation:—Stipulation for fees was vehemently condemned in ancient India. No student could be refused admission even by a private teacher simply because he was too poor to pay any fees. A teacher guilty of this misdemeaner was declared to be unfit to officiate at religious ceremonies and was held to obloquy as a mere trafficker in learning.¹ It was held that the cause of education was a sacred one; every teacher qualified to teach must teach as a matter of duty. The relations between the teacher and the student should be based upon mutual affection and regard, and not on any mercenary consideration.² There is ample evidence to show that this theory was acted upon in all public educational institutions in ancient India. Evidence of indisputable character shows that the Buddhist Univer- sities, temple colleges, Agrahāra institutions, and Maṭhas were all imparting free education to their students. When they used to receive sufficient endowments, they would also arrange to provide free boarding, lodging, clothing and medicine to the students admitted by them. Education therefore was free in a much wider sense in ancient India than is ever dreamt possible in modern times. 1 यस्यागमः केवलजीविकायै तं ज्ञानपण्यं वणिजं वदन्ति । Mālavikāgnimitra, 1. 17 The Saura Purana, X. 42, condemns such a teacher to hell. Such condemnation however may suggest that a small minority of teahers may have been following the objectionable practice. 2 It is interesting to note that there existed a similar prejudice against the charging of fees in ancient Greece for a long time. Neither Socrates nor Plato charged any fees. It was the Sophists who first introduced the custom of offering instructions to any person in any subject he chose, if he offered sufficient remuneration. The practice was despised by the public opinion in the beginning, but was soon adopted by all educational institutions before the 3rd century B. C. Spencippus, the successor of Plato at the Academy, charged fee from his students. Monroe, A Text-book, p. 112

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 79 Private Teachers and Fees: It is necessary to note that what has been condemned by the sacred texts is a stipulation for the payment of fees as a condition precedent to admission; they have no objection to teachers accepting voluntary gifts from the guardians of students reading under them. Just as the teacher was exhorted to remember that teaching was his sacred duty, the guardian also was asked to note that no object in the universe, howsoever precious it may be, can be regarded as an adequate fee for even that humble teacher, who teaches a single letter of the alphabet.¹ Smṛitis resort to this hyperbolic strain because they were anxious that the teacher, who was prevented from charging regular fees, should be in a position to get an adequate living. The exhortation to the guardians was not without its effect. For we find that though in theory the teacher's honorarium (guru- dakshiṇā) became payable only at the end of education², rich guardians used to pay the whole of it in advance according to their ability³. Guardians of ordinary means 1 Cf एकमप्यक्षरं यस्तु गुरुः शिष्ये निवेदयेत् । पृथिव्यां नास्ति तद् द्रव्यं यद्दत्वाऽनृणी भवेत् ॥ Laghu-Hārīta in Par. Mad, I, ii, p. 53 It is interesting to note that Lüther's view was similar. 'I tell you a teacher who faithfully trains and teaches boys can never receive an adequate reward, and no money is sufficient to pay the debt you owe him.' Monroe, A Text-book, p. 414 2 Yājñavalkya repeatedly refused the offer of a handsome fee Janaka on the ground that he had not finished all what he had to teach. Br. Up. IV. 1. 3 Jātakas show that rich persons like merchants and princes used to send the whole amount of school fee in advance when they used to send their sons to Taxila. See Jātakas Nos. 55, 61, 445, 447, 522 etc. Bhīshma also had paid Droṇa his honorarium P. T. O.

80 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. must have found this procedure impracticable and paid the fee by easy instalments, though we have so far got no evidence of this practice prevailing. None who could afford, was permitted to evade payment by the public opinion. It was regarded as a very great disgrace that one should not pay one's teacher though properly instructed, when one had the ability to pay. When Nāgasena, being a monk, naturally expressed his unwillingness to accept the rich and luxurious gifts of his royal pupil, Menander, the latter begged him to change his mind in order to save him from the scandal getting abroad that though properly instructed, he would give nothing in acknowledgment to his teacher (Mil. pan. 1, pp. 134-5). Students whose guardians were really too poor to pay any honorarium were expected to help the teacher in his household work and pay him some honorarium at the end of the course by collecting subscriptions for the purpose.¹ We often come across such students in Jātakas. To refuse their request for subscription was regarded as highly dis- graceful.² Payment of fees: A Resume: There was no fixed scale of monthly or sessional fees prescribed in ancient (Continued from the last page) in advance before he had started the edcuation of the Kaurava princes; Mbh. 1. 142. 1. The same was done by the father of Nāgasena, the preceptor of Menander; Milindapañha. Vol. 1. 17 1 E, G. पच्चा धम्मेण भिक्खं चरित्वा आचारियधनं आहरिस्सामि । No. 478. 2 Cf. King Raghu's observation to Kautsa, who had come to him hoping to get the amount of his teacher's fee:— गुर्वर्थमर्थी श्रुतपारदृश्वा रघोः सकाशादनवाप्य कामम् । गतो वदान्यान्तरमित्ययं मे माभूत्परीवादनवावतारः ॥ V. 24 King Uttaṅka gave his wife's earrings to a graduate, who was asked by his teacher to procure them as his fee. The latter's wife was desirous to wear them.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 81 India. It was the duty of Brahmanas, who were the custodians of ancient culture and learning, to teach all qualified students free of any charge. If a student was poor, the teacher could not refuse him admission; he had to teach him in return for personal service and in expec- tation of some lump sum to be received later, when he had finished his education and was in a position to collect subscription for the purpose. As far as well-to-do persons were concerned, they were expected to pay the maximum they could do to the teacher. Government also was expected to enable the teachers to impart free education by giving them land grants and pensions. It was also expected to give rich endowments to public institutions in order to enable them to offer not only free instruction but also free boarding and lodging. The available evidence shows that this arrangement fostered a proper sense of responsibility and worked on the whole quite satisfactorily. Admission Procedure: In ancient Indian educa- tional system there were no examinations, diplomas and migration certificates; every student, therefore, who sought admission to a higher course, had to undergo a severe test to prove that he was fit for it. The duty to provide free education that was imposed upon teachers and insti- tutions must also have naturally resulted in making the admission test a stiff one. The test was partly moral and partly intellectual. Morally disqualified students were summarily rejected (Nirukta, II. 4). In ordinary schools dullards were given a trial and advised discontinuance of studies, when it was discovered that they could not im- prove. In famous centres like Nālandā, where the rush was great, the admission test was very stiff; only two or three out of ten could succeed in getting admission¹. Both at Nālandā and Vikramāśīlā, there were special

1. Watters, II, p. 165; Beal, II. 170-1. 6

82 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [Ch. professors appointed to the task of regulating admission by testing the calibre, capacity and sincerity of the appli- cants for admission¹. Probably similar arrangements existed also in other institutions of higher education. Private teachers would themselves test the capacity of students seeking admission to their schools. At the beginning of Vedic and professional education, some religious rituals also were performed, which will be des- cribed in Appendix I, A. The Size of the Class: The income of the private teacher varied with the number of his students, and we sometimes come across rituals prescribed for getting more students. But the actual number of students reading under one teacher does not seem to have been large. The Jātakas no doubt very often state that the ‘world-renowned’ teachers of Taxila used to have 500 students reading under them; but this statement seems to be an exaggera- tion, suggested by the traditional number of disciples usual- ly associated with the Buddha. For all available evidence shows that the strength of a class under one teacher was usually about 15. Nālandā used to have about a thousand teachers for its student population of not more than nine thousand. In the 11th century in the Vedic college at Ennāyiram, each teacher had only about 20 students under his charge². At Benares during the 17th century, sometimes only four and usually about 12 to 15 students used to work under one teacher³. In the 19th century the number of students under one teacher in Sanskrit

1. These scholars bore the rather curious title of Dvārapālas or door-keepers. See Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddist Universities pp. 47, 60.
2. S. I. E. R., 1918, p. 145.
3. Bernier, p. 145.

IV] EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION AND FINANCE 83 schools at Nadia varied from 10 to 20¹. It therefore seems to be almost certain that the Jātaka statement about the teachers at Taxila having 500 students each is an exaggeration. The normal strength of a class was never more than 20. School Hours: Curiously enough there is very little information available about the school hours. Smṛitis are altogether silent upon the point. We should however note that in ancient time press, paper and cheap books were absent; so home work or home reading was practically impossible. All the work had to be done under the guidance of the teacher or the monitor. Literatur often describes the early morning time as resounding with the sound of the recitation of students². So there is no doubt that there was a morning session, probably starting at about 7 A.M., when the daily religious duties were over. The morning session continued till about 11 A.M., when both the students and the teachers had to break off for their religious duties and meals. The noon meal was followed by a short rest and the school reassembled at about 2 P. M. and worked for three or four hours. The school period was spent partly in what may be called homework and partly in learning new lessons. The former consisted of committing to memory the texts expounded earlier with the help of one or two copies of the book existing in the school or under the direction of a senior monitor, who was well versed in it. The memorising and revision work was usually done in the morning, and new lessons were taught in the afternoon. Such at any rate was the tradition in the Sans-

1. Nadia Gazetteer, p. 182.
2. शुश्राव ब्रह्मघोषान् स विरात्रे ब्रह्मरक्षसाम् । Rāmāyaṇa. बटुपटलसमारब्ध स्वाध्यायाध्ययनध्वानप्रबुद्धासु । Vāsavadattā