प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

I, G] CHHURIKĀBANDHA 293 end of the military training. The central and essential part of the ritual was, as the name itself would suggest, the investiture of the budding hero with a dagger in token of his having completed his military training.¹ This ceremony is mentioned by Nārada alone, but it was fairly common in Rajputana among Rajput families at the beginning.of the 19th century, and was known as kharg bandhāi (tying of the sword), which is the vernacular rendering of the chhurikā- bandha of Nārada. This ceremony, which was per- formed before the marriage, may have been common in higher aristocratic families.

1. Cf. छुरिकाबन्धनं वक्ष्ये नृपाणां प्राक्करग्रहात् । विवाहोक्तेषु मासेषु शुक्लपक्षेप्यनस्तगे ॥ छुरिकाबंधनं कार्यं अर्चयित्वामरान्पितॄन् । अर्चयेच्छुरिकां नित्यं देवतानां च संनिधौ ॥ व्रतलग्ने च बध्नीयात्कट्यां लक्षणसंयुताम् । नारद in VMS., p. 580.

APPENDIX II. YAJÑOPAVĪTA OR THE SO-CALLED SACRED THREAD. **Introduction :—**Yajñopavīta is at present under- stood to be the Sacred Thread, that is to be worn by the twice-born classes from the time of the Upanayana ceremony onwards. The popular belief is that the Upanayana ceremony is primarily intended for investing the boy with this mysterious thread, and the Śrāvaṇī ritual for the purpose of renewing it annually. We have already shown how both these conceptions are wrong (App. I, B and C). Here we propose to trace briefly the history of Yajñopavīta. **Yajnopavita, the upper Garment :—**Later writers explain Yajñopavīta thread as a symbol of the Guṇamayī Māyā, as it was visualised by the Creator at the time of creation ;¹ but its original significance was entirely different. Grammatically, Yajñopavīta is an adjective and refers to something that was worn at the time of the sacrifice ; यज्ञाय उपवीतं यज्ञोपवीतम् । Hindu notion of decency required that the upper part of the body should be properly covered when one was engaged in sacred functions like sacrifices, charity

1. सिसृक्षुरेक एकाग्रे समासीनः शिवः स्वयम् । दृष्ट्वा गुणमयीं मायां सूत्ररूपामिवाकरोत् ॥ तया तदात्मकं विष्णुं स्पृष्ट्वा पालं दिवौकसाम् । स्वयं ब्रह्माऽभवद्बुद्धो रुद्रश्चास्य ज्ञयाय सः ॥ ज्ञानात्मकेन हरिणा ब्रह्मात्मनि शिवेऽव्यये । तत्सूत्रमुपवीतत्वाद्ब्रह्मसूत्रमिदं कृतम् ॥ Āśvalāyana quoted in VMS, p. 419.

II] YAJÑOPAVĪTA, THE SACRED THREAD 295 or svādhyāya.¹ Yajñopavīta denoted the upper garment when it was worn in the proper manner prescribed for sacred occasions. Taittirīya Saṁhitā is explicit on the point; it says that Yajñopavīta means wearing the garment in a particular manner; when the garment is passed under the right and over the left shoulder, it becomes Yajñopavīta according to the authority of Brāhmaṇa works.² The same garment was called Prāchīnāvīta when it was worn exactly in the reverse way, and Nivīta when it was allowed to hang down like a garland. **Its prehistoric Form :—**The upper garment that was thus used was normally a piece of cloth. But in prehistoric times when the art of spinning and weaving was not known, it was a piece of deer-skin. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka states that it should be a piece of deer-skin, rather than a piece of cloth.³ In the course of time when clothes became common, the upper garment also became a cotton product, but earlier tradition of the deer-skin was in a way preserved by continuing the use of a small patch of deer-skin on such occasions. In later times when Yajñopavīta as a piece of cloth was replaced by Yajñopavīta in the form of the thread, this piece of deer-skin was strung into it. This custom still obtains at the time of Upanayana.

1. उत्तरं वासः कर्तव्यं पञ्चस्वेतेषु कर्मसु । स्वाध्यायोत्सर्गदानेषु भुक्ताचमनयोस्तथा ॥ Baudhāyana in SCS, p. 299.
2. वासो विन्यासविशेषो यज्ञोपवीतम् । दक्षिणं बाहुमुद्धरतेऽवधत्ते सव्यमिति यज्ञोपवीतमिति ब्राह्मणम् ।
3. अजिनं वासो वा दक्षिणत उपवीय । I. II.

296 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. When and How the Thread came in :— In the early period, Yajñopavīta was normally in the form of a full upper garment like the Dupaṭṭā of northern India or the uparaṇe of Mahārāshṭra. Āpas- tamba Dharma Sūtra states distinctly that Yajñopavīta should be normally in the form of the upper garment ; wearing a thread instead is only the second alternative.¹ Jātukarṇya quoted in the Smṛitichandrikā distinctly declares that Yajñopavīta in the form of the thread is permissible only when the upper garment of the normal size is not available.² The view of Ṛishyaśṛiṅga is the same.³ Yajñopavīta was to be worn on sacred occasions like the sacrifice or the prayer. In the course of time the conception of the sacrifice changed ; the whole life came to be viewed as a kind of sacrifice when everything that one does should be dedicated to the Creator. If then the Yajñopavīta was to be continuously used during the time one is engaged in sacred duties, it must be worn all the twenty-four hours. This could be feasible only if the Yajñopavīta assumed a more manageable form. It was probably on this account that Yajñopavīta was allowed to dwindle in form into the modern Sacred Thread. The alternatives placed before society were many. Some were in favour of the continuance of the old custom ; they held that it was sufficient if the Yajñopavīta was worn as long as prac-

1. नित्यमुत्तरं वासः कार्यम् । अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे । II, 2, 4, 21-22.
2. वस्त्रोत्तरीयाभावे द्वयंगुलं त्र्यंगुलं चतुरंगुलं वा सूत्रैर्वस्त्राकृति परिमण्डलं तदुत्तरीयं कुर्यात् । p. 84.
3. अपि वा वाससा यज्ञोपवीतार्थं कुर्यात्तदभावे त्रिवृता सूत्रेण । Ibid, quoted in SCS., p. 84.

II] YAJÑOPAVITA, THE SACRED THREAD 297 ticable ; it need not be worn continuously for 24 hours¹. Others were in favour of substituting a Kuśa rope for the unmanageable upper garment². But Kuśa rope was not pleasant in touch and so some others advocated that cotton thread should be preferred for the purpose³. The reason in recommending the new substitutes was convenience and nothing else. For a long time they were not popular ; hence we find that in the Upanayana ceremony, as it is described in most of the Gṛihya-sutras, there is no mention of the boy being invested with the Sacred Thread. In stead, we have the description of the boy being offered the dupaṭṭā or uparaṇe i. e. the upper garment at one stage of the ritual, The Number of Sacred Threads increases, why :— In the course of time, however, owing to its obvious convenience, the innovation of the Sacred Thread became popular and its original significance was gradually forgotten. Brahmachārī was to wear only one Sacred Thread, but Snātaka was to wear two, one for the under garment and the other for the upper garment⁴. It was clearly forgotten by this time that Yajñopavīta was intended to be the upper garment. If Snātaka was to wear two Yajñopavītas, the Gṛihastha must wear three, for he was one stage higher. The Gṛihyā- saṅgraha however thinks that this third Sacred Thread

1. कार्पासक्षौमगोबालशणवल्कत्तृणोद्भवम् । सदा संभवतो धार्यमुपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥ Nigamaparisishṭa in SCS., p. 84.
2. यज्ञोपवीतं कुरुते सूत्रं वस्त्रं वापि कुशरज्जुमेव वा । Go. Gr. S., I. 2. 1.
3. अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे । Āp. Dh. S., II. 2. 4. 22.
4. स्नातकानां द्वितीयं स्यादन्तर्वासस्तथोत्तरम् । Vasishṭha in VMS., p. 421.

298 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. was in lieu of the upper garment¹. Devala also holds the same view; an upper garment, he says, is not always at hand, hence the recommendation to wear the third Sacred Thread². **Mysterious efficacy of Yajnopavita:-**In the course of time Yajñopavīta came to be invested with mysterious efficacy. The Āditya Purāṇa declares that it has the power of destroying demons. When such notions began to prevail in society, it is no wonder that the view began to be advocated that the greater the number of Sacred Threads, the better would be our spiritual and material welfare. Kāśyapa would recommend 2, 3, 5, or 10 Sacred Threads for the house-holder;³ an anonymous text quoted by Mitramiśra is in favour of as many Sacred Threads as possible.⁴ All this vividly shows how the original significance of the Yajñopavīta was completely forgotten by this time. When Yajñopavīta assumed the form of the thread, the custom gained ground of making each of its thread a constituent product of nine smaller threads. Oṅkāra, Agni, Bhaga, Soma, Piṭris, Prajāpati, Vasu, Dharma, and Sarva-devas were taken to be the presiding deities of the nine threads of the Sacred Thread. Can Yajnopavita be removed? :- Even when the Yajñopavīta dwindled into the Sacred-Thread, it could be occasionally removed in the course of the day. The Taittirīya, Kaṭha, Kāṇva, and Vājasaneya schools were in favour of permitting the removal

1. तृतीयमुत्तरीयार्थे वस्त्राभावे तदिष्यते । Ibid, p. 21.
2. तृतीयमुत्तरीयार्थे वस्त्रालाभे तदिष्यते । SCS., p. 801.
3. त्रीणि चत्वारि पञ्चाष्ट मुनिभिः स्युर्दशापि वा ॥ VMS., p. 421.
4. आयुष्कामैः सदा धार्यं बहुयज्ञोपवीतकम् ॥ 'अन्यत्रापि' in Ibid.

II] YAJÑOPAVĪTA, THE SACRED THREAD 299 of the Sacred Thread at the time of the daily bath;¹ the Ṛigvedins and the Sāmavedins, however, advocated the doctrine that the Sacred Thread should never be separated from one’s person. The latter view eventually prevailed and still obtains in Hindu society,

1. तैत्तिरीयाः कठाः काण्वाश्चरका वाजसेयिनः । कण्ठादुत्तार्य सूत्रं तु कुर्युर्वै क्षाळनं द्विजाः ॥ बह्वृचाः सामगाश्चैव ये चान्ये यजुःशाखिनः । कण्ठादुत्तार्य सूत्रं तु पुनरर्हन्ति संक्रियाम् ॥ भृगु in VMS., 421.

APPENDIX III. CONVOCATION ADDRESSES. Convocation address to Arts Graduates. A specimen of what may be described as a convo- cation address to Arts Graduates is to be found in the Taittirīya Upanishad, I, 11. As the passage is very interesting from several points of view, it is given below along with its translation. वेदमन्‌ूच्याचार्योऽन्तेवासिनमनुशास्ति । “सत्यं वद । धर्मं चर । स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः । आचार्याय प्रियं धनमाहृत्य प्रजातन्तुं मा व्यवच्छेत्सीः । सत्यान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । धर्म्मान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । कुशलान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । भूत्यै न प्रमदितव्यम् । स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रम- दितव्यम् । देवपितृकार्याभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् । मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव । आचार्य्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव । यान्यनवद्यानि कर्म्माणि तानि सेवितव्यानि नो इतराणि । यान्यस्माकं सुचरितानि तानि त्वयो- पास्यानि नो इतराणि । ये के चास्मच्छ्रे यांसो ब्राह्मणाः तेषां त्वयाऽऽसनेन प्रश्वसितव्यम् । श्रद्धया देयम् । संविदा देयम् । श्रिया देयम् । ह्रिया देयम् । भिया देयम् । संविदा देयम् । अथ यदि ते कर्मविचिकित्सा वा वृत्तविचिकित्सा वा स्यात् ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः युक्ता आयुक्ता अलूक्षा धर्म्मकामाः स्युः यथा ते तत्र वर्तेरन् तथा तत्र वर्तेथाः । अथाभ्या- ख्यातेषु ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः युक्ता आयुक्ता अलूक्षा धर्म्मकामाः स्युः यथा ते तेषु वर्तेरन् तथा तेषु वर्तेथाः । एष आदेशः । एष उपदेशः । एषा वेदोपनिषत् । एतदनुशासनम् । एवमुपासितव्यम् । एवमु चैतदुपास्यम् । TRANSLATION. After the teaching of the Veda is over, the preceptor exhorts the student :

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 301 “Speak the truth. Do your duty. Neglect not the daily study (of the Veda). After having brought to your teacher his proper reward, do not cut off the line of progeny. Do not swerve from the truth. Do not swerve from duty. Do not neglect what is useful. Do not miss opportunities to become great. Do not neglect the daily duties of learning and teaching (the Veda). Do not neglect the (sacrificial) rituals due to the Gods and Fathers. Let your mother be to you like unto a god. Let your father be to you like unto a god. Let your teacher be to you like unto a god. Let your guest be to you like unto a god. Whatever actions are blameless, those should be followed, not others. Whatever good works have been performed by us, those should be emulated by you, not others. And there are some Brahmanas better than we. They should be comforted by you by giving them a seat. Whatever is given should be given with faith, not without faith,—with joy, with modesty, with fear, with kindness. If there should be any doubt in your mind with regard to any duty or with regard to conduct,—in that case conduct yourself as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, conduct themselves therein, whether they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted to duty. And with regard to things that have been spoken against, conduct your- self as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, con- duct themselves therein, whether they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted to duty.

302 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. Thus conduct yourself. This is the rule. This is the teaching. This is the true purport (Upanishad) of the Veda. This is the command. Thus should you observe. Thus should this be observed." Convocation Address to Medical Graduates. We get a very good specimen of the convocation address to medical students in Charakasamhitā Vimānasthāna, 8, 6-8. Important passages from it are given below, along with an English rendering. अनुज्ञातेन प्रविचरता [ त्वया ] पूर्वं गुर्वर्थोपान्वाहरणे यथाशक्ति प्रयतितव्यम् । कर्मसिद्धिर्मर्थसिद्धिं यशोलाभं प्रेत्य च स्वर्गमिच्छता त्वया गोब्राह्मणमादौ कृत्वा सर्वप्राणभृतां शर्माशासितव्यम् । अहरहरुत्तिष्ठता चोपविशता च सर्वात्मना चातुराणामारोग्ये प्रयतितव्यम् । जीवहेतोरपि चातुरेभ्यो नाभिद्रोग्धव्यम् । मनसापि च परस्त्रियो नाभिगमनीयास्तथा च सर्वमेव परस्वम् । निभृतवेशपरिच्छदेन भवितव्यम् । अशौण्डेनापापेनापाप- सहायेन च श्लक्ष्णशुक्लधर्म्यशर्म्यधन्यसत्यहितमितवचसा देशकालविचारिणा स्मृतिमति ज्ञानोत्थापनकरणसंपत्सु नित्यं यत्नवता च न कदाचित्............... अनपवादप्रतिकाराणां मुमूर्षूणां च तथैवासन्निहितेश्वराणां स्त्रीणामनध्यक्षाणां वौषधमनुविधातव्यम् । न च कदाचित्स्त्रीदत्तमामिषमादातव्यमननुज्ञातं भर्त्राथवाध्यक्षेण । आतुरकुलं .................. चानुप्राविश्य वाङ्मनोबुद्धी- न्द्रियाणि न क्वचित्प्रणिधातव्यानि अन्यत्रातुरादातुरोपकारार्थादातुरगतेष्व- न्येषु वा भावेषु । न चातुरकुलप्रवृत्तयो बहिर्निश्शारयितव्याः । ह्रसितं चायुःप्रमाणमातुरस्य न वर्णयितव्यम् जानतापि तत्र यत्रोच्यमानमातुरस्या- न्यस्य वाप्युपघाताय संपद्यते । विज्ञानवतापि च नात्यर्थमात्मनो ज्ञाने विकत्थितव्यम् । आप्तादपि हि विकत्थमानादत्यर्थमुद्विजन्त्येके । न चैव ह्यस्ति सुतरामायुर्वेदस्य पारम् । तस्मादप्रमत्तः शश्वदभियोगमिच्छन् गच्छेत् । ......। कृत्स्नो हि लोको बुद्धिमतामाचार्यः । शत्रुश्चाबुद्धिमतामेव । अतश्चाभिसमीक्ष्य बुद्धिमताऽमित्रस्यापि यशस्यं... पौष्टिकं... लौक्यमुपदिशतो वचः श्रोतव्य- मनुविधातव्यं चेति ।

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 303 ENGLISH RENDERING "When, on getting permission, you begin to practise, you ought to make an effort to offer an ade- quate honorarium to your teacher. You should aim at the welfare of Brahmanas, cows and all other beings with a view to win practice, prosperity and fame here and heaven hereafter. Every day you should conti- nuously and whole-heartedly try to promote the health of patients. Even if your own life is in danger, you should not neglect your patients. You should not entertain an evil thought about the wealth or wives of others. Your dress should be modest, not foppish. Avoid drinking, do not commit a sin, nor help one who is committing it. Your speech should be smooth, polished, truthful and to the point. Taking all facts into consideration, you should make a deliberate endeavour to increase the stock of your knowledge and instruments. Do not give medicine to those whose disease is definitely ascertained to be incurable, or to those who are about to die, or to women, if their husbands or guardians are not present. Do not accept any fees from ladies without the assent of their husbands or guardians. When you enter a patient's room, all your attention should be centred on the patient, his expression, movements and medicines, to the exclusion of everything else. You must treat as strictly confidential all information about the patient and his family. Where there is a danger of the patient or any of his relatives receiving a shock, you should not divulge the impending death of the patient even when you are aware of it. Though well grounded in your line, you should not praise your knowledge much; for some people get disgusted even with their friends and relatives if they

304 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. are given to boasting. One can never get a mastery of the entire medical science; unelated, one should therefore pass one's time in making a constant effort to learn something more. A wise man will indeed gather something from every quarter; a fool only thinks otherwise, and shows jealousy. Taking all things into consideration, a wise physician should listen to and derive benefit from the discoveries or observations even of an enemy, if they are calculated to promote one's fame and prosperity in this world.

APPENDIX IV FOUR VEDAS, SIX ANGAS, TEN GRANTHAS, FOURTEEN VIDYĀS, EIGHTEEN ŚILPAS AND SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS. In connection with the curriculum in ancient India, the above expressions are frequently used; we therefore propose to explain them briefly in this appendix. Four Vedas :—They are the Rigveda, the Yajur- veda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda. These were regarded as revealed, but there was a time when a deep prejudice was entertained against the Atharvaveda, which was therefore excluded from studies. The remaining three Vedas were therefore called Trayī. Six Angas :—These were the following; 1 Śikshā, the science of pronunciation ; Kalpa, the science of ritualism ; Vyākaraṇa, grammar; Nirukta, philology, Chandas, prosody, and Jyotisha, astronomy. Dasa Granthas :—These were the following: 1 One's own Veda 2. Its Brāhmaṇa 3 and Āraṇyaka 4 Nighaṇṭu and the six Aṅgas enumerated above. A graduate, who had mastered all these, was known as a Daśagranthī Brahmana. Fourteen Vidyas : During the Pauranic period, a person was regarded as a distinguished scholar if he had mastered fourteen Vidyās. These were usually taken to be 1-4 Vedas, 5-10 Shaḍaṅgas, 11 Dharma- śāstra (sacred and secular law) 12 Purāṇas, 13 Mīmānsā (science of exegis) and 14 Tarka (logic) 20

306 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. Eighteen Silpas : There is no authoritative enu- meration of eighteen śilpas. In one place the Milinda- pañha includes the four Vedas, the Purāṇas, philosophy, history, etc. among them (Vol. I, p. 6), but there is no doubt that this is wrong. The basic conception of śilpas is a profession requiring special skill¹ and the Vedic age denoted by this term arts like vocal music, instru- mentalmusic and dancing ² Taxila university claimed to specialise in eighteen śilpas, and archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming and the art of finding treasures figure among the subjects taught there³. These five therefore must have been included in the śilpas. Conveyancing and law, mathematics, accoun- tancy, agriculture, commerce, cattle breeding, and issatha (?) are also mentioned as śilpas in the Buddhist literature.⁴ When we remember the basic idea of śilpa, we can include sculpture and engineering also among the traditional eighteen śilpas. The following there- fore most probably constituted the eighteen śilpas. 1 Vocal music 2 Instrumental music 3 Dancing 4 Painting 5 Mathematics 6 Accountancy 7 Engineer- ing 8 Sculpture 9 Agriculture 10 Cattle-breeding 11 Commerce 12 Medicine 13 Conveyancing and Law 14 Administrative training 15 Archery and military art 16 Magic 17 Snake charming and poison antidotes 18 The Art of finding hidden treasures.

1. एतद्धि दिव्यं शिल्पं न मानुषम् । Kss., XXV, 175
2. त्रिवृद्वै शिल्पं नृत्यं गीतं वादित्रम् । S. Br., XXIX, 5
3. Jātakas Nos. 80 and 537 ; Mahāvagga, VII. 1. 6; Jātaka Nos 185., 256 & 416.
4. M. N., Vol. I p. 85, A. N., Vol. IV pp. 281-2.

IV] SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS 307 Sixty-four Kalas : According to Vātsyāyana I.3.16, the following are the traditional sixty-four Kalās, which a cultured lady was expected to master :— १ गीतम् २ वाद्यम् ३ नृत्यम् ४ आलेख्यम् ५ विशेषकच्छेद्यम् ६ तण्डुलकुसुमवलिविकाराः ७ पुष्पास्तरणम् ८ दशनवसनांगरागः ९ मणि- भूमिकामे १० शयनरचनम् ११ उदकवाथम् १२ उदकाघातः १३ चित्राश्च योगाः १४ माल्यग्रथनविकल्पाः १५ शेखरकापीडयोजनम् १६ नेपथ्यप्रयोगाः १७ कर्णपत्रभंगाः १८ गन्धयुक्तिः १९ भूषणयोजनम् २० ऐन्द्रजालाः २१ कौचुमाराश्च योगाः २२ हस्तलाघवम् २३ विचित्रशाकयूषभक्ष्यविकारक्रिया २४ पानकरसरागासवयोजनम् २५ सूचीवानकर्माणि २६ सूत्रक्रीडा २७ वीणा- डमरुकवाद्यानि २८ प्रहेलिका २९ प्रतिमाला ३० दुर्वाचकयोगाः ३१ पुस्तक- वाचनम् ३२।नाटकाख्यायिकादर्शनम् ३३ काव्यसमस्यापूरणम् ३४ पट्टिका- वेत्रवानविकल्पः ३५ तक्षकर्माणि ३६ तक्षणम् ३७ वास्तुविद्या ३८ रूप्य- रत्नपरीक्षा ३९ धातुवादः ४० मणिरागाकरज्ञानम् ४१ वृक्षायुर्वेद‌योगाः ४२ मेषकुक्कुटलावकयुद्धविधिः ४३ शुकसारिकाप्रलापनम् ४४ उत्साद्ने संवाहने केशमर्दने च कौशलम् ४५ अक्षरमुष्टिकाकथनम् ४६ म्लेच्छित- विकल्पाः ४७ देशभाषाविज्ञानम् ४८ पुष्पशटिका ४९ निमित्तज्ञानम् ५० यन्त्रमातृका ५१ धारणामातृका ५२ सम्पाठ्यम् ५३ मानसीकाव्यक्रियाः ५४ अभिधानकोशः ५५ छन्दोज्ञानम् ५६ क्रियाकल्पः ५७ छलितकयोगाः ५८ वस्त्रगोपनानि ५९ द्यूतविशेषः ६० आकर्षंक्रीडा ६१ बालकीडनकानि ६२-४ वैनयिकीनां वैजयिकीनां व्यायामकीनां च विद्यानां।ज्ञानम्। Owing to want of space it is not possible to explain the meaning of each of the 64 kalās enume- rated above. It would suffice to say that Nos. 23-4 refer to the art of cooking, Nos. 5, 8, 15 and 44 to personal toilette of women requiring skill in the use of ointments for the body, paints for the teeth, etc. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 27 enumerate fine arts like music, dancing and painting. Arts necessary for home and personal decorations are mentioned in Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10 14-19, 48 and 58 and they include garland making, decoration of the floor, the preparation of the bed,

308 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. proper use and care of dress and ornaments etc. Women, who were usually fond of ornaments, were expected to be able to appreciate correctly the value and quality of the different varieties of gold, etc, and Nos. 38-40 refer to the capacity in this connection. Arts useful for the housewife like sewing, patching, elementary carpentry, repairs of household tools and articles are mentioned in Nos: 25,33,35-6,37,41,44, and 49. Literary efficiency and skill of different variety is presupposed by Nos. 28-31,33,45-47 and 51-57. They require women to be skilled in reading, writing, understanding different languages, composing poems, understanding dramas, etc. Nos. 12 and 64 refer to different physical exercises and Nos. 11,20,22,26,42, 43,57,59,60 mention recreations for utilising leisure hours. The latter include magic, sleights of hand, dyūta etc. No. 61 requires every woman to know how to prepare toys for children. It will be thus seen that the 64 arts, which a woman was expected to master, endowed her with a healthy physique, taught her all arts necessary for an economic and an efficient housewife and made her a cultured companion of her husband, who could introduce her to any company of educated men and women. It is obvious that only ladies in higher sections of society could have got proficiency in 64 arts. What was their percentage we do not know.

APPENDIX V Technical terms and dates of authors, works and kings. (A. = Author ; K. = King ; D. = Date ; Q. = Queen) Agrahâra ; a village of learned Brahmana colonists. Alberuni ; Arabic A., c. 1025 A. D. Āpastamba D S. ; c. 400 B. C. Arthasâstra of Kauṭilya, c. 300 B. C. Asramas : four stages of life. Bâṇa ; poet, c. 625 A. D. Brâhmaṇa literature consists of explanations of and commentaries on the Vedas ; c. 1500 B.C. to 1000 B. C. Bhâskarâchârya : A. ; c. 1150 A-D. Bhavabhûti ; poet ; c. 725 A. D. Bhoja ; Paramara king, c. 1025 A.D. Brahmachâri ; student observing celibacy. Brahmacharya, the state of a Brahmachâri. Buddha died in c 487 B. C. Châlukya Dynasty, Later ; 973 to A D. Charaka ; An author on medicine, c 80 A. D. Chandragupta Maurya, c. 300 B.C. Chandragupta Gupta ; c. 400 A.D. Divâkarasena ; sage, c. 610 A. D. Diddâ ; Q. c. 1000 A. D. Dharmasûtras ; c. 600 B. C. to 400 B. C. Fa Hsien ; Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 400 A. D. Gâthâsaptaśatî ; c. 4th century A. D. Gauḍapâda ; philosopher, c. 700 A. D. Gautama D S., c. 400 B. C. Gâyatrî Mantra ; see p. 278. Gṛihyasûtras ; c. 700 B. C. to 500 B. C. Gupta age ; c. 300 to 500 A. D. Gurukula, see p. 132. Harsha ; K. ; 606-647 A. D. Harshacharit, c. 625 A. D. Hînayâna ; a branch of Buddhism, advocating its earlier philosophy. Its literature is mostly in Pali. Homa ; sacrifice to gods. Indo-Iranian age ; c. 2500 B. C. Ikshvâku dynasty of Āndhra country, c. 200 A. D. I-sing ; Chinese traveller in India in c. 675 A. D. Janaka ; K. in Upanishads ; c. 1200 B. C. Jâtaka period ; c. 500 B. C. Jayachandra ; K, c. 1200 B. C. Kadamba dynasty ; c. 300 A. D. to 600 A. D. Kâlidâsa ; 4th century A. D. according to some and 1st century B. C. according to others. Kanishka ; K. c. 100 A. D. Kaṇva Dynasty ; c. 50 B. C. Karman theory holds that we become what we deserve to be by our past actions. Katha republic : c. 300 B. C. Kauṭilya ; author of the Arthaśâstra ; c. 300 B. C. Kumâragupta ; K. ; c. 425 A. D. Lakshmaṇasena : K. of Bengal ; c. 1200 A. D. Mahâyâna : a later school of Buddhism, which deified the

310 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Buddha and wrote its works in Sanskrit. Mahâbhârata; book; c. 300 B. C. Mahâbhârata war; c. 1400 B. C. Mâlatîmâdhava drâma; c. 725 A.D. Mâlava republic; c. 300 B. C. to 200 A. D. Maṇḍanamiśra; A. c. 800 A D. Mantra; sacred verse or formula. Manusmṛiti; c. 300 B. C. Mauryan age; 325 to 190 B. C. Milindapañha a book: c. 1st century B. C. or A. D. Mîmânsâ school of philosophy deals with Vedic exegis and sacrifices. Muñja; K. c. 980 A. D. Nâgârjuna; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 150 A. D. Naishṭhika Brahmachâri observed celibacy to the end of his life. Nirukta; a work on Vedic exegis; c. 700 B. C. Nyâya philosophy mainly deals with the problems of logic. Pallava dynasty; c. 300 to 750 A. D. Pâṇini; famous grammarian; c. 6th century B. C. Pâthaśâla; Sanskrit school. Patwari; village accountant. Punarjanma; rebirth Purâṇas were given their present form in c. 350 A. D., though there are some later additions too. Râmâyaṇa; c. 200 B C. Râjaśekhara; poet; c. 900 A. D. Śâlivâhana dynasty; also known as Sâtavâhana dynasty c. 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. Samâvartana ceremony: at the end of the education course. Saṁgha; Buddhist order of monks. Sâṁkhya philosophy is atheistic and advocates that matter and souls are the two entities. Sandhyâ; morning and evening Vedic prayer. Śaṅkarâchârya, the great Advaitic philosopher; c. 800 A. D. Saṁskâra; ritual. Śibi republic in c. 300 B. C. Śindhurâja; K. c. 1000 A. D. Smṛitis; metrical books on sacred law; c. 300 B. C. to 800 A. D. Snâna; see Samâvartana. Śrâddha; oblations offered to a dead ancestor on the date of his death. Sugandhâ; Q. of Kashmir, c. 900 A. D. Śuṅga dynasty; c. 190 to 80 B.C. Suśruta; a work on medicine. Tol; a Sanskrit school on traditional lines. Upâkarma; see App. I C. Upanayana ceremony for initiating a student into Vedic studies. Upanishadic period; c. 1200 to 800 B. C. Uttararâmacharit drama; c. 725 A. D. Utsarjana; see App. I. C. Vaiśeshika philosophy mainly deals with atomism and logic. Vasubandhu; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 300 A. D. Vedâṅgas; see App. IV. Vedānta philosophy; mainly based on Upanishads and amplified by Śaṅkara, Râmânuja and others. Vikramâditya VI, Châlukya emperor, c. 1100 A. D. Vrata; a religious vow. Yama Smṛiti; c. 7th century A.D. Yoga philosophy concentrates on meditation and Prâṇâyâma. Yuan Chwang: Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 640 A. D.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 311 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY. RELIGIOUS SOURCES. Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Upanishads, Dharmasūtras, Gṛihyasūtras, Smṛitis, Buddhist Tripiṭakas and Jātakas. Vīramitrodaya of Mitramiśra; Jīvananda's edition; Smṛitichandrikā of Devaṇabhaṭṭa; Mysore University edition. LITERARY SOURCES. Sanskrit dramas and poems referred to in the text and notes. TECHNICAL WORKS. Charaka and Suśruta Saṁhitās. Aryabhaṭīya of Aryabhaṭa. Bṛihatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Dhanurvedasaṁhitā of Vasiṣhṭha, edited by Hardayalu Swami, Meerut, 1899. ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOURCES. Ancient Indian inscriptions as published in various archæological reports and journals like Epigraphia Indica, Indian Antiquary, etc. South Indian Epigraphy Reports. FOREIGN SOURCES. M'Crindle, Ancient India as described by Magas- thenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1926. M'Crindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great. Westminister, 1896. Legge, Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, by Fa- Hsien, Oxford, 1886. Watters, On Yuan Chwang's Travells in India, Vols. I and II, London, 1904-5.

312 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman Hwui Li, London, 1911 (New Edition). Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Religion by Itsing. Oxford 1896. Sachau, Alberuni's India, Vols. I and II, London 1888. Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, Hindi translation, Hindustani Academy, Allahabad. Cordier, Yule's Travells of Marco Polo, London, 1926. Bernier, Travells in the Mogul Empire, Oxford, 1914. MODERN WORKS. (1) GENERAL. Macdonel and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, London, 1912. Bloomfield, Rig-Veda Repitions. Harvard Oriental Series, 1916. V. A. Smith, Asoka, 3rd edition. Oxford, 1909. Vidyabhushana, A History of Indian Logic, Calcutta, 1921. Altekar, The Rāshtrakūṭas and their Times. Poona, 1934. Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, 1938. (2) BOOKS ON EDUCATION. Keay, Ancient and Later Indian Education, Oxford. Das, The Educational System of the Ancient Hindus, Calcutta, 1930, Bokil, A History of Education in India, Vol, I, Bombay, 1925. Venkatesvaram, Indian Culture through the Ages,