नाट्यशास्त्रम् (प्रथम भाग - अभिनवभारती एवं हिन्दी टीका सहित)

.XVII. 96] DICTION OF A PLAY 317

Want of Synthesis

[When a sentence is] completed within [each] foot [of a verse] it [is an instance of] Want of Synthesis (abhiplutārtha)$^2$.

Logical Defect

93. Anything devoid of reasoning is an example of Logical Defect (nyāyād-apeta)$^1$.

Metrical Defect

Lapse in the metrical structure is called Metrical Defect (viṣama, lit. unevenness).

Hiatus

94. When words [which should combine in Sandhi] are kept separate it is [an instance of] Hiatus (visandhi).

Slang

When a sound or accent is dropped it is an instance of slang (śabdacyuta, lit. lapse in a word)$^1$.

Guņas

95. These are the faults of a poetical work properly described by me. Guņas (merit) are their negation and are characterised by sweetness and depth of meaning$^1$.

The ten Guņas

96. The ten Guņas are : Synthesis (śleṣa, lit, union), Perspicuity (prasāda), Smoothness (samatā), Concentration (samādhi),

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and the laughter of Śiva. Any one simile would have been enough. Each simile here serves the same purpose and hence Tautology has occurred (Ag.). See Bhāmaha, IV. 12.

$^2$ Read samāpyate (ms. na. in B.) for samasyate. An example of this is स राजा नीतिकुशलः सरः कुमुदशोभितम् । सर्वप्रिया वसन्तश्री योषि मालतिकागमः. Here all the four feet contain four complete sentences which are not connected with one another by sense.

93 (C.93; B.XVI.93). $^1$ nyāyād-apetam = deśakāla-viruddham etc. (Ag.) 'defying the limitation of place and time'. Bhāmaha's deśa-kāla-kalā-lokanyāyāgama-virodhitā (IV.28ff) seems to be included in this.

94 (C.94; B.XVI.94). $^1$ Such dropping occurred probably due to the Prakritic habit in speech.

95 (C.95; B.XVI.95). $^1$ Vāmana holds the opposite view (guṇa-viparyayātmāno doṣāḥ II. 1.1.) and according to him Guṇas are positive entities (kāva-śobhāyāḥ kartāro dharmā guṇāḥ, III, 1. 1).

96 (C.96; B.XVI.96). $^1$ Bhāmaha, III. 1. 4., and Daṇḍin, I.41-94.,

318 THE NĀṬYAŚĀSTRA [XVII. 97-

Sweetness (mādhurya), Grandeur (ojas), Agreeableness (sauku-mārya, lit. delicacy), Directness of Expression (artha-vyakti, lit. expression of meaning), Exaltedness (udāra, lit. deep) and Lovelines (kānti).

Synthesis

97. Union of words connected through meanings intended is called Synthesis (śleṣa)¹.

Perspicuity

98. Where the unexpressed word or sense is comprehended through a use of easily understood words and sense, it is [an instance of] Perspicuity (prasāda)¹.

Smoothness

99. When a composition does not contain too many uncompounded words, redundant expressions and words difficult to understand it is [an instance of] Smoothness (samatā)¹.

Concentration

100. Possessing some special sense which the men of genius can find out in a composition (lit. here) is called Concentration (samādhi)¹.

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have ten Guṇas and name them similarly But their descriptions are different. Cf. De, Skt. Poetics, II. pp.15ff. Nobel, Foundations, pp. 104ff.

97 (C.97; B.XVI.97). ¹ Cf. Vāmana, III. I. 11 ; Daṇḍin I. 43-44. BC. give another description (C.98, B.XVI.98) of this Guṇa, which in translation is as follows : A [composition] which is, imbued with deep logic but from its nature is [very] plain and is very well-knit-together is called Compact (śliṣṭa).

98 (C.99; B.XVI.99). ¹ Cf. Vāmana III. 1. 6; Daṇḍin I.45.

99 (C 100; B.XVI. 100). ¹ Cf. Vāmana III. 1.12; Daṇḍin I-47-50. (B.XVI.101) and C. (100) gives an additional description of this Guṇa which in translation is as follows : When alaṃkāras and guṇas match and illuminate one another it is called [an instance of] Smoothness (samatā).

100 (C.p.212 f.n. 1. B.XVI.102). ¹ Cf. Vāmana, III. 1.13; Daṇḍin I. 93-94. B.(XVI.103) and C (101) gives an additional description of samādhi, which in translation is as follows : Careful condensation of meanings suggested by and derived from similes, is called Concentration (samādhi).

-XVII. 105 ] DICTION OF A PLAY 319

Sweetness

101. When a sentence heard or uttered many times does not tire or disgust [anyone], it [is an instance of] Sweetness (mādhurya)¹.

Grandeur

102. When a composition consists of a use of many and varied compound words exalted [in sense] and agreeable [in sound], it is [an instance of] Grandeur (ojas)¹.

Agreeableness

103. When a composition consists of words easy to pronounce, euphonically combined, and giving agreeable impression [even when treating some unpleasant topic], it is [an instance of] Agreeableness (saukumārya)¹.

Directness of Expression

104. If any subject (lit. action) relating to the [common] events occurring in the world gets expressed by means of well-known predicates, it becomes [an instance of] Direct Expression (artha-vyakti)¹.

Exaltedness

105. When in a composition superhuman characters are

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101 (C.102; B.XVI.104). ¹ Cf. Vāmana III. 1. 11-21; Daṇḍin I. 51-53.

102 (C.p.212, f. n. 2; B.XVI.105). ¹ Cf. Vāmana III.1.5; Daṇḍin I.80-85. B. (XVI.106) and C. (103) gives a second definition of this Guṇa which in translation is as follows : If a [composition otherwise] censured and deficient in quality reflects an exalted sense through its words and is rich in sound and sense it becomes [an instance of] Grandeur (ojaḥ). Hemacandra utilised this definition (Ch. IV.)

103 (C.104; B.XVI.107). ¹ Cf. Vāmana III. 1. 22; Daṇḍin calls this sukumārātā.

104 (C.p.212, f. n. 3; B.XVI.108). ¹ C. suprasiddhadhātunā for suprasiddhābhidhāna, (B.XVI.109) and C.(105). gives a second definition of this Guṇa, which in translation is as follows : When the meaning of a composition can be grasped by the penetrating mind just after its recital (lit. use) it is [an instance of] Directness of Expression (arthavyakti).

105 (C.p.212, f. n. 4; B.XVI.101).

320 | THE NATYASASTRA | [ XVII. 106-

described in relation to the Erotic and the Marvellous Sentiments and the various States, it is [an instance of] Exaltedness (udātta)$^1$.

106. That which [in a composition] while describing the sportive movement of [a character] delights the ear and the mind just as the moon [pleases us], is [an instance of] Loveliness (kānti)$^1$.

Alaṃkāras, and Guṇas according to Sentiments

107. These are the figures of speech, faults and Guṇas [available in a poetical composition]; I shall now describe their application in connexion with different Sentiments.

Sounds and Figures of Speech according to Sentiments

108. The poetical composition in connexion with the Heroic, the Furious and the Marvellous Sentiments should consist mostly of light syllables and should include similes and metaphors.

109-110. In the Odious and the Pathetic Sentiments it (the composition) should be similar except that it should consist mostly of heavy syllables.

Metres according to Sentiments: in the Heroic and the Furious Sentiments

Whenever any act of boldness is described (lit. occurs) in connexion with the Heroic and the Furious Sentiments, it (the composition) should be in the Āryā metre and should have metaphor and Condensed Expression in it.

In the Erotic Sentiment

In the Erotic Sentiment the composition should be in gentle metres.

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$^1$ Cf. Vāmana, III. 1. 23; Daṇḍin, I. 76-78. B.(XVI. III.) and C(106) give along with this a definition of the Guṇa named udāra. In translation it is as follows : When the composition includes witty and graceful words having many special senses which are marvellous, it is [an instance of] Exaltedness (udātta).

106 (C.p.212 f. n. 5; B.XVI.112). $^1$ Cf. Vāmana, III. 1. 25; Daṇḍin, I. 85-88. C (107), gives an additional definition of this Guṇa, which in translation is as follows ; When a composition gives delight to the ears as well as to the mind on account of its well-put-together words, it is [an instance of] Loveliness (kānti).

107 (C.108; B.XVI.113). 108 (C.109; B.XVI.114).
109-110 (C.110-111; B.XVI.115-116).

-XVII. 117 ] DICTION OF A PLAY 321

In the Heroic Sentiment

111-112. In the Heroic Sentiment the poetical composition should have gradation [of sounds] and it should be in metres of the Jagatī, Atijagatī and Śaṃkṛti types. In the description of battles and tumults Utkṛti has been prescribed by the experts.

In the Pathetic Sentiment.

Śakkarī and Atidhṛti would be the proper metres in the Pathetic Sentiment..

In the Heroic and the Furious Sentiments

113. The metres prescribed for the Heroic Sentiment may be applied in the Furious Sentiment as well ; and as for metres in the rest of the cases (i. e. those not mentioned) they should be made suitable to the meaning intended.

Vowel-length in different Sentiments and States

114. In connexion with the drama the poets should use¹ short, long and prolated (pluta) vowels for representing different Sentiments and States.

115. In the intonation [in Recitation] a vowel consisting of one Mātrā is short, of two Mātrās is long and of three Mātrās is prolated (pluta).

Uses of the prolated vowel

116. In remembering anything, in [expressing] indignation¹, in lamenting or in the reading of Brahmins the prolated (pluta) vowels occur.

117. [Syllables concerned in these connexions] will be ‘ā’ for remembering, ‘ū’ for indignation, ‘hā’ for lamentation and ‘om’ for the reading of Brahmins.

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111-112 (C.112-113; B.XVI.117-118).
113 (C.114; B.XVI.119).
114 (C.115; B.XVI.122). ¹ C. kāvyaṃ vijñeyaṃ for kāryaṃ kavibhir.
115 (C.116; B.XVI 123).
116 (C.117; B.XVI.124). ¹ C. smṛte cāstrayute for smṛte cāsūyite.
117 (C.118; B.XVI.125).
41

322 THE NATYAŚĀSTRA [ XVII. 118-

118. Besides these, other syllables in a play (lit. poetical composition) should also be made short, long or prolated (pluta) according to the Sentiments and States [they are to express].

119. The uneven and uneven metres which have been described before should also be used in composition with agreeable and soft sounds according to the meaning [intended]¹.

120. The playwright should make efforts to use in his composition sweet and agreeable words which can be recited by women. For, furnished with these (i.e. such words) a play will appear very much beautiful just as lotus-lake [will appear] adorned with swans.

121. With harsh words such as cekriḍita¹, delicate dramatic art does not appear beautiful just as a public woman does not appear well by the side of Brahmins who are clad in Ruru-skin, and are annointed with ghee and who carry the skin of black antelopes and have the Akṣa-mālā [in their hands].

122. A play abounding in agreeable sounds and senses, containing no obscure and difficult words, intelligible to country-people¹ having a [good] construction, fit to be interpreted with (lit. fit for) dances, developing Sentiments by many [characters]² and having suitable Junctures (sandhi) and their [proper] unions, becomes fit for presentation to the spectators.

Here ends chapter XVII of Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra which treats of the Characteristics of a good play in connexion with the Verbal Representation.

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118 (C.119; B.XVI.126).
119 (C.120; B.XVI.120). ¹ B. reads 120a as yac chandaḥ pūrvam evoktam viṣamārdhasame samam. B. śabdais tat kāryam tu rasānugam for kāryās te'rthavaśānugāḥ.
120 (C.121; B.XVI.121). ¹ The word cekriḍayatām occurs in the Avi. (III.18) ascribed to Bhāsa. (See A.D. Pusalker, Bhāsa, Lahore, 1940, p.131).
121 (C.122; B.XVI.127).
122 (C.123; B.XVI.128). ¹ C. budhajanaśukhayogyaṁ yuktiman.
² B. bahukṛtarasamārgam for bahurasakṛtamārgam, C.

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324 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 6-

Vowels and simple consonants

6. Sounds following e and o (i.e. ai and au) and the Anu-svāra [in the alphabet] do not occur in Prakrit. And such is the case with sounds between va and sa (i.e. śa and ṣa) and the final sounds in the ka, ca and ta groups (i.e. ṅa, ña, ṇa).¹

7. Ka, ga, ta, da, ya, and va are dropped [in Prakrit] and the meaning is carried by the [remaining] vowels, and kha, gha, tha, dha and bha become ha without giving up the meaning of the word.

8. In Prakrit ra does neither precede nor follow [a consonantal sound] except in cases of bhadra, vodra, hrada, candra and the like.¹

9. Kha, gha, tha, dha and bha always become ha in words such as mukha, megha, kathā and vadhu prabhūta.¹ And as for ka, ga, ta, da, ya² and va, the vowel³ following them always represents them.

10. Ṣa it should be known, always become cha in words such as ṣatpada.¹ The final syllable of kila should be ra and the word khalu should become khu.

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6 (C. 6-8; B.XVII.7). ¹ This together with three following couplets are written not in Skt. but in Prakrit. Hence they seem very much to be an interpolation. The first of these occurs as a quotation (without the author's name) in a late metrical work edited by M.H.D. Velankar (Annals of the Bhandarkar Inst. XIV. 1932-33, pp. 1-38, citation, Nitti-Dolci, p.71).

7 (C.6-8; B.XVII.8).

8 (C.6-8; B.XVII.9). ¹ Nitti-Dolci and B. reads padra for draha. See chāyā and Ag. and also PSM. for the Pkt. words. Cf. Nitti-Dolci, p.71.

9 (C.6-8; B.XVII.10). ¹ Evidently hard aspirates in case of other words did not change. Ag's. example of such words are kheṭa, parigha, atha. This speaks of the high antiquity of the Pkt. of the NŚ.

² The non-aspirate consonants mentioned here are to be understood as devoid of the inherent vowel 'a'.

³ The word saro (=svaraḥ) here means "vowel" and not "sound". Cf. Nitti-Dolci p.71.

10 (C.9; B.XVII.11). ¹ Ag. is silent about this ṣaṭpadādi gaṇa.

-XVIII. 18 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 325

11. Ṭa becomes ḍa in words such as bhaṭa, kuṭī and taṭa, and śa and ṣa always become sa, e.g. viṣa (visa) and śaṃkā (saṅkā).

12. In words such as itara and the like ta standing not in the beginning of a word becomes an indistinctly pronounced da.$^1$ Ḍa in words such as vaḍavā and taḍāga becomes la.

13. Ṭha in words such as śaṭha, pāṭha, pīṭhi and the like become ḍha, and na becomes ṇa everywhere in pronunciation.$^1$

14. Pa [in it] changing into va, āpana becomes āvana. And except in case of words like yathā and tathā tha becomes dha.

15. One is to know paruṣa as pharusa, for pa becomes pha [in it], and mṛga will be changed to mao while mṛta will also be mao.$^1$

16. Au employed in words like auṣadha etc. will change to o, and ca in words such as pracaya, acira and acala etc. will change into ya.$^1$

17. Thus [change] the sounds in Prakrit when they are not mutually connected (i.e. they are simple). Now I shall describe the change of conjunct sounds.

Conjunct consonants

18. Śca, psa, tsa and thya change into (c)cha, bhya, hya and dhya into (j)jha, ṣṭa into ṭṭha, sta into ttha, sma into mha, kṣṇa and ṣṇa into ṇha, and kṣa into (k)kha.

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11 (C.10; B.VII.12).

12 (C.11; B.XVII.13). $^1$ This indistinctly pronounced da is perhaps a spirantised da. Ag. thinks that it is somewhat like a la. (अस्पष्टो लघुप्रयत्न उच्चार्यः येन क्रमाड्कारस्य लकारच्छाया भवति यथा उदरं उलरं).

13 (C.12; B.XVII.14 f.n.). $^1$ B. reads the first hemistich as follows : वर्डनमते च भावे धकारवर्णोऽपि ढत्वमुपयाति and C. too differently. Dha in vardhana (i.e. in combination with ra) changes into ḍha.

14 (C.12b-13a, B.XVII.15).

15 (C.13b 14a B.XVII.16). $^1$ The word maa (maya) from mṛta as well as mṛga had its spirantised da reduced to ya-śruti which however was not shown in writting during the early days of this phonetic change (See IHQ. VIII. 1933, suppl. p. 14-15).

16 (C.14b-15a; BXVII.17). $^1$ This ya-śruti for ca did not probably at once lead to its graphic elimination.

17 (C.15b-16a; B.XVII.18).

18 (C.16b-18a; B.XVII.19.)

326 THE NĀṬYAŚĀSTRA [ XVIII. 19-

19. Āścarya will be acchariya and niścaya nicchaya, utsāha ucchāha and pathya, paccha.¹

20. Tubhyam becomes tujjhaṃ, mahyam majjhaṃ, vindhya viṃjha, daṣṭa daṭṭha and hasta hattha.

21. Grīṣma becomes gimha, ślakṣṇa saṇha, uṣṇa uṇha¹; jakṣa jakkha, paryaṅka pallaṃka.

22. There is metathesis in the group hma occurring in words such as brahman etc., and in bṛhaspati [the group spa] becomes pha, yajña becomes jaṇṇa, bhīṣma bhimha.

23. Ka and similar other letters (sound) while on the top of another letter (sound) will have to be disjointed in their pronunciation¹.

24. Thus are to be learnt the pronunciation of Prakrit and Sanskrit. I shall discuss hereafter the classification of regional languages (deśa-bhāṣā).

25. The [languages] to be used in drama are of four types in which Recitation should be either of the refined (saṃskṛta) or of the vulgar (prākṛta) kind.

Four types of languages

26. The Super-human Language (atibhāṣā), the Noble Language (ārya-bhāṣā)¹ the Common Language (jāti-bhāṣā) and the Language of Other Animals (yonyantarī bhāṣā)² are the [four] languages occurring in plays.

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19 (C.18b-19a; B.XVII.20a-21a). ¹ B. reads one additional hemistich between 19a and 19b.
20 (C.19b-20a; B.XVII.21b-22a).
21 (C.20b-21a; B.XVII.22b-23a). ¹ C. reads kṛṣṇaḥ kaṇhaḥ.
22 (C.21b-22a; B.XVII.23b-24a).
23 (C.22b-23a; B.XVI.24b-25a). ¹ This probably relates to svara-bhakti (anaptyxis). Kilesa (kleśa), radana (ratna) and duvāra (dvāra) may be examples of this.
24 (C.23b-24a; B.XVII.25b-26a). ¹ Cf. Nitti-Dolci. p.78.
25 (C.24b-25a; B.XVII.26b-27a).
26 (C.25b-26a; B.XVII.27b-28a). ¹ Some commentators think that āryabhāṣā means a language in which Vedic words preponderate (Ag.).
² ·C. reads jātyantarī and yonyantarī.

-XVIII. 30 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 327

The Superhuman and the Noble Languages

27. The Super-human Language is for the gods, and the Noble language for the kings¹. These have the quality of refinement² (saṃskāra) and are current over the seven great divisions³ (dvīpa) of the world.

The Common Language

28. The Common Language prescribed for use [on the stage] has various forms¹. It contains [many] words of Barbarian (mleccha) origin and is spoken in Bhārata-varṣa [only]².

The Animal Language

29. The Language of Other Animals¹ have their origin in animals domestic or wild and in birds of various species, and it follows the Conventional Parctice (nāṭya-dharmī).

Two kinds of Recitation

30. The Recitation in the Common language which relates to the four castes, is of two kinds, viz, vulgar (prākṛta) and refined (saṃskṛta).

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27 (C.26b-27a; B.XVII.28b-29a). ¹ The atibhāṣā and āryabhāṣā are possibly the dialects of the pure Indo-Aryan speech. It should be noted that "saṃskṛta" (Sanskrit) as the name of a language is absent here. Bhoja takes ati-, ārya- and jāti- bhāṣas respectively as śrauta (Vedic), ārṣa (Puranic) and laukika (literary) speeches. See Śr. Pr. pp.191ff.

² Read saṃskāraguṇa for saṃskāra-pāṭhya (the ms. bha in B.).

³ Read saptadvīpa-pratiṣṭhitā for samyannῡya pratiṣṭhitā (the ms. bha in B.).

28 (C.26b-27a; B.XVII.29b-30a). ¹ Read vividha-jātibhāṣā ; vividha (ca, da in B.) for dvividha.

² The common speech or the speech of the commoners is distinguished here from that of the priests and the nobility by describing it as containing words of Barbarian (mleccha) origin. These words seem to have been none other than vocables of the Dravidian and Austric languages. They entered Indo-Aryan pretty early in its history. See S. K. Chatterji, Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, Calcutta, 1926 pp. 42,178.

29 (C.27b-29a; B.XVII.30b-31a). ¹ Neither the NŚ. nor any extant drama gives us any specimen of the conventional language of lower animals, which is to be used in the stage.

30 (C.28b-29a; B.XVII.31b-32a).

328 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 31-

Occasion for Skt. Recitation

31. In case of the self-controlled (dhīra) Heroes of the vehement (uddhata), the light-hearted (lalita), the exalted (udātta), and the calm (praśānta) types, the Recitation should be in Sanskrit.

Occasion for Pkt. Recitation

32. Heroes of all these classes are to use Prakrit when the occasion demands that.¹

33. ¹In case of even a superior preson intoxicated with the kingship (or wealth) or overwhelmed with poverty no Sanaskrit should be used.²

34. To persons in disguise¹, Jain monks², ascetics³, religious mendicants⁴ and jugglars should be assigned the Prakrit Recitation.

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31 (C. 29b-30a; B.XVII.32b-33a).
32 (C.30b-31a; B.XVII.33b-34a). ¹ As Arjuna disguised as Bṛhannalā.
33 (C.31b-32a; B.XVII.34b-35a). ¹ We follow C. text.
² No extant drama seems to furnish any illustration of this rule. B. reads one additional hemistich before this.
34 (C.32b-33a; B.XVII.36). ¹ vyājaliṅgapraviṣṭānām = persons in disguise of different kinds of professional and religious mendicants etc.. See Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra. An example of this is Indra in the guise of a Brahmin speaking Pkt. in Karṇa. ascribed to Bhāsa. Nitti-Dolci takes this expression as an adjective of śramaṇānāṃ etc.. But it need not be construed like this. This part of the rule seems to relate to Skt. speaking characters assuming disguise. Virādhagupta (Mudrā II.) assuming the guise of a snake-charmer, is an example of such characters. And so are Yaugandharāyaṇa and Rumaṇvān in the Pratijñā, (III) ascribed to Bhāsa.
² Śramaṇa (Pkt. samaṇa). The word is to be taken to mean here a Jain monk. Cf. Jadi vattham avaṇemi samaṇao homi, Avi. (V.) ascribed to Bhāsa; śramaṇa was sometimes used also in connexion with the Buddhists. See below 36.
³ tapasvin.—It appears that the author of the NŚ. meant by this term ascetics in general. Though we find Brahmin ascetics in ancient literature, the institution of asceticism was most probably of non-Aryan origin. This seems to be justification of assigning Prakritic Recitation to all the ascetics irrespective of their sectarian affiliation.
⁴ bhikṣu.—religious mendicant in general. It should not be restricted to Buddhists alone. The alternative name of the Brahma-sūtra is the Bhikṣu-sūtra.

-XVIII. 35] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 329

35. ¹Similarly Prakrit should be assigned to children, persons possessed of spirits of lower order, women in feminine character² persons of low birth, lunatics and phallus-worshippers³.

Exception to the rule for Pkt. Recitation

36. But to itinerant recluses¹, sages², Buddhists³; pure Śrotriyas⁴ and others who have received instruction [in the Vedas] and wear costumes suitable to their position (liṅgastha)⁵ should be assigned Sanskritic Recitation.

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35 (C.33b-34a; B.XVII.37 f.n. 9). ¹ B.'s reading in translation is as follows : Similarly Pkt. should be assigned to Śaiva teachers, lunatics, children, persons possessed of spirits of lower order, women, persons of low birth and hermaphrodites (B.XVII.37).

² In a queen's role a woman may sometimes speak Skt. See 38-39 below. The parivrājikā in the Mālavi. speaks Skt.

³ saliṅga.—This possibly means the member of a sect which like the Liṅgāyets wears a phallus suspended from their neck.

36 (C.34b-35a; B.XVII.38). ¹ parivrāj—a person of the fourth āśrama. A recluse belonging to the Vedic community.

² muni.—This word, probably of non-Indo-Aryan origin meant in all likelihood "wise man." See NŚ. I. 23 note 1. In the ancient world, wisdom was usually associated with religious and spiritual elevation. This might have been the reason why the word was applied to persons like Vasiṣṭha and Nārada.

³ śākya.—a follower of the Buddha. There is nothing very astonishing in Skt. being assigned to Buddhist monks. Buddhist teachers like Aśvaghoṣa, Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Vasubandhu were almost all great Sanskritists, and the Mahāyāna literature was written in Sanskrit of corrupt as well as of pure variety. This might have been the general linguistic condition before the schism arose among the Buddhists. In Aśvaghoṣa's Śāriputra-prakaraṇa Buddha and his disciples speak Sanskrit (Keith, Skt. Drama p.82). Aśvaghoṣa assigns Skt. to a śramaṇa, as well (loc. cit). This śramaṇa was possibly a Buddhist ; see 34 f.n.

⁴ cokṣeṣu (caikṣeṣu, C.) śrotriyeṣu—for the pure śrotriya or a learned Brahman. The adjective "pure" (cokṣa) used with śrotriya is possibly to separate him from an apostate who might have entered Jain or any other heterodox fold and was at liberty to use Pkt.

⁵ śiṣṭāḥ liṅgasthāḥ—religious mendicants who have received instruction (in Vedas).

42

330 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 37-

37. Sanskrit Recitation is to be assigned to queens, courtezans¹, female artistes to suit special times and situations in which they may speak.

38-39. As matters relating to peace and war, the auspicious and inauspicious movements of planets and stars and cries of birds concern the well-being or distress of the king these are to be known by the queen, and for this reason she is to be assigned Sanskritic Recitation in connexion with these (lit. in that time)¹.

40. For the pleasure of all kinds of people, and in connexion with the practice of arts, the courtezans are to be assigned Sanskritic Recitation which can be easily managed.

41. For learning the practice of arts and for amusing the king the female artiste has been prescribed to use Sanskrit in dramatic works¹.

42. The pure speech of the Apsarasas¹ is that which has been sanctioned by the tradition (i.e. Sanskrit), because of their association with the gods ; the popular usage conforms to this [rule].

43. One may however at one's pleasure assign Prakritic Recitation to Apsarasas [while they move] on the earth. [But to the Apsarasas in the role of] wife of a mortal also [the same] should be assigned when an occasion (lit. reasons and need) will occur¹.

44. In the production of a play their [native] language should not be assigned to tribes such as, Barbaras, Kirātas, Andhras and Dramiḍas¹.

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37 (C.35-36a; B.XVII.39). ¹ An example of this is Vasantasenā speaking Skt. (Mṛcch. IV.).

38-39 (C.36b-38a; B.XVII.40-41). ¹ This rule cannot possibly be illustrated by any extant drama. 40 (C.38b-39a; B.XVII.42).

41 (C.39b-40a; B.XVII.43). ¹ There is possibly no example of this in any extant drama.

42 (C.40b-41a; B.XVII.44). ¹ No play with an Apsaras speaking Skt. is available. All the Apsarasas in Vikram, speak Pkt.

43 (C.41b-42a; B.XVII.45). ¹ Read mānuṣīṇām (ca in B) for mānuṣāṇām. Urvaśī is an example of an Apsaras who became the wife of a mortal. (Vikram).

44 (C.42b-43a; B.XVII.46). ¹ See NŚ. XXIII. 99 notes.

-XVIII. 49 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 331

45. To pure tribes of these names, should be assigned dialects current in Śaurasena.

46. The producer of plays may however at their option use local dialects; for plays may be written in different regions [for local production].

Seven major dialects

47. The Seven [major] dialects (bhāṣā) are as follows : Māgadhī, Āvantī [Āvantījā], Prācyā, Śaurasenī (Śūrasenī), Ardhamāgadhī, Bāhlīkā, Dākṣiṇātyā¹.

48. In the dramatic composition there are, besides, many less important dialects (vibhāṣā)¹ such as the speeches of the Śakāra, Ābhīras, Caṇḍālas, Śabaras, Dramiḍas², Oḍras³ and the lowly speech of the foresters.

Uses of major dialects

49. [Of these] Māgadhī is assigned to guards (lit. inmates) of the royal harem¹, and Ardhamāgadhī to menials, princes and leaders' of merchants' guilds².

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45 (C.43b-44a; B.XVII.47). 46 (C.44b-45a; B.XVII.48).

47 (C.45b-46a; B.XVII.49). ¹ Māgadhī, Śaurasenī and Ardha-māgadhī are well-known. But any old and authentic description of Āvantī, Prācyā, Bāhlīkā and Dākṣiṇātyā Pkt. seems to be non-existent. According to Pṛthvīdhara a very late authority, Mṛcch. contains the specimens of Āvantī and Prācyā only. It is to be noted that the present list does not include Mahārāṣṭrī.. See M. Ghosh. "Mahārāṣṭrī a late phase of Śaurasenī", JDL.

48 (C.46b-47a; B.XVII.50). ¹ By the word vibhāṣā Pṛthvīdhara understands vividhā bhāṣa hīnāpātra-prayojyatvād hīnāḥ. See Pischel, Grammatik, §§ 3-5. No old and authentic specimen of the vibhāṣās has reached us. According to Pṛthvīdhara the Mṛcch. contains Śākārī and Cāṇḍālī besides Ḍhakkī which last the NŚ. does not know.

² It is curious that after forbidding the use of languages like Dramiḍa (Dramila) in 44 above, the author is including it among the dialects that can be allowed in dramatic works. One possible explanation of this anomaly may be that here we meet with a late interpolation, and passages from 48-61 belong to a later stratum of the text.

³ Read draviḍoḍrajāḥ for dramilāndhrajāḥ, B; draviḍodrajāḥ, C. See 55 note 1.

49 (C.47b-48a; B.XVII.51). ¹ For a list of such persons see DR.II.74.

² According to Pischel this passage assigns AMg. to servants,

332	THE NATYASASTRA	[ XVIII. 50-

50. Prācyā is the language of the Jester¹ and the like ; and Āvanti is of the rogues (dhūrta)². The Heroines, and their female friends are also to speak Śaurasenī when not in any difficulty.

51. To soldiers, gamesters, police chief of the city and the like should be assigned Dākṣiṇātyā¹, and Bāhlīkī is the native speech of the Khasas who belong to the north,

Uses of minor dialects

52. Śākarī should be assigned to the Śakāra and the Śakas and other groups of the same nature¹, and Cāṇḍālī to the Pulkasas and the like.²

53. To charcoal-makers, hunters and those who earn their

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Rajputs (rājaputra) and leaders of merchants' guild (śreṣṭhi). See Grammatik § 17. But no extant drama seems to illustrate this rule. For Candanadāsa who is a śreṣṭhi, does not speak AMg. (Mudrā, I) while Indra in the disguise of a Brahmin speaks this dialect of Pkt. (Karṇa. ascribed to Bhāsa).

50 (C.48b-49; B.XVII.52). ¹ According to Pṛthvīdhara Viduṣaka in the Mṛcch. speaks Prācyā the sole characteristic of which is abundance of pleonastic ka. See Pischel, Grammatik, Grammatik, § 22.

² C. yojyā bhāṣā for dhūrtānām apy. According to Pṛthvīdhara the the two policemen Vīraka and Candanaka in the Mṛcch. (VI.) speak Āvanti. But according to the latter's own admission he was a Southerner and a man of Karṇāṭa. No old and authentic description of this dialect is available, see Pischel, Grammatik § 26.

51 (C.49b-50a: B.XVII.53). ¹ Candanaka's language in Mṛcch. in spite of Pṛthvīdhara's testimony to the contrary may be taken as a specimen of Dākṣiṇātyā. See 50 note 2 above. No old and authentic description of this dialect is available. Cf. Pischel, Grammatik § 24.

52 (C.50b-51a; B.XVII.54). ¹ śakārāṇām śakādīnām for śakāraghoṣakādīnām (B.), and śabarāṇām śakādīnām (C). According to Pṛthvīdhara Śakāra in Mṛcch. speaks Śākarī dialect. Cf. Pischel, Grammatik, § 24.

² Pṛthvīdhara thinks that Caṇḍālas in Mṛcch (V.) speak the Cāṇḍālī dialect. Cf. Pischel, Grammatik, § 25.

·53 (C.51b-52a; B.XVII.55). ¹ B. śakāra-bhāṣa for śabara-bhāṣā. This dialect seems to have been the parent of the modern Sora language.

.XVIII. 58 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 333

livelihood by [collecting] wood and leaves should be assigned Śābarī¹ as well as the speech of forest-dwellers.

54. For those who live in places where elephants, horses, goats, sheep, camels or cows are kept [in large numbers] Ābhīrī¹ or Śābarī² has been prescribed, and for forest-dwellers and the like, Drāviḍī³ [is the language].

55. Oḍrī is to be assigned to diggers of subterranean passages, prison-warders, grooms for horses¹ ; and Heroes and others like them while in difficulty are also to use Māgadhi for self-protection.

Distinguishing features of various local dialects

56. ¹To the regions [of India] that lie between the Ganges and the sea, should be applied a dialect abounding in e²

57. To the regions that lie between the Vindhyas and the sea should be assigned a language abounding in na¹ ( or ta).

58. Regions like Surāṣṭra and Avanti lying on the north of the Vetravatī one should assign a language abounding ca¹.

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² See 54 note 3.
54 (C.52b-54a; B.XVII.56). ¹ Ābhīrī dialect is not available in any extant drama. ² See 53 note 1.
³ Drāviḍī dialect is not available in any extant drama. It is possible that it was not a pure Dravidian speech (See 44 above). Possibly a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect in which Dravidian phonetic and lexical influence predominated was meant by this. Its habitat was in all likelihood some region of North India. Cf. Nitti-Dolci, p. 120-122.
55 (C-54b-55a; B.XVII.57). ¹ Emend oḍhrikārasarakṣasāṃ (ḍha in B) into oḍrī kārāśvarakṣatāṃ (C. oṣṭrikānāñ ca rakṣatāṃ and B. sandhikārāśvarakṣātāṃ); for Oḍri Pkt. see 48 note 3. and Nitti-Dolci, pp. 120 f.n. 4 and 122.
56 (C.55b-56a; B.XVII.59). ¹ B. again reads 44 after 55.
² This "e" is perhaps termination of the nominative singular the a-bases in AMg.
57 (C.53; B.XVII.60). ¹ This relates to a dialect of Pkt. which changes na always into ṇa. Though according to some grammarians Pkt. is always to change na into ṇa, it seems that such was not strictly the case with all its dialects. For example in the so-called Jain Pkt. (AMg. of Hemacandra) has initial n and intervocal ṇṇ.
58 (C.56b-57a; B XVII.61). ¹ It seems that at the time of the

334 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 59-

59. To people who live in the Himalayas, Sindhu and Sauvīra a language abounding in u should be assigned.¹

60. To those who live on the bank of the Carmaṇvatī river and around the Arvuda mountain a language abounding in o¹ (or ta) should be assigned.

61. These are the rules regarding the assignment of dialects in plays. Whatever has been omitted [here] should be gathered by the wise from the popular usage.

Here ends Chapter XVIII of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra which treats of the Rules regarding the Use of Languages.

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author of the passage intervocal ca in this particular region was yet maintained or dental t sounds were mostly changed into c sound (as in ciṭṭha for tiṣṭha).

59 (C.57b-58a; B.XVII.62). ¹ This u perhaps relates to a close pronounciation of the o vowel.

60 (C. omits this ; B.XVII.63). ¹ This o perhaps relates to a open pronounciation of the u vowel.

61 (C.53b-59; B.XVII.64).

CHAPTER NINETEEN

MODES OF ADDRESS AND INTONATION

Different modes of address

1-2. These are, O the best of Brahmins, the rules on the use of languages [in a drama]. Now listen about the rules of popular modes of address¹ or the manner in which persons of equal, superior or inferior status in a play are to be addressed by those of the superior, the medium or the inferior class.²

Modes of addressing males : addressing great sages

3. As the great sages are adorable (lit. god) even to the gods they are to be addressed as “holy one” (bhagavan)¹ and their wives are also to be similarly addressed.²

Addressing gods, sectarian teachers and learned men

4. Gods,¹ persons wearing sectarian teacher's dress² and persons observing varied vows³ are to be addressed as “holy one” (bhagavan)³ by men as well as women.

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1-2 (C.1-2, B.XVII.65-66). ¹ This manner of addressing different persons includes referring to them before their ownselves or before others e.g.. In Śak. (I), Duṣyanta is referred to by his charioteer as āyuṣman and then he is addressed in the same term (Yathājñāpayati āyuṣman. āyuṣman paśya paśya).

² Rules given hereafter do not cover all the numerous and different cases occurring in the extant dramatic literature in Skt. and Pkt.

3 (C.3; B.XVII.67). ¹ Ex. Kāśyapa (Kaṇva) addressed by his disciple (Śak. IV.) Mārīca by Duṣyanta (ibid. VII.) and Rāvaṇa in ascetic's disguise by Rāma (Pratimā. V).

² No ex. of this seems to be available in any extant drama.

4 (C.4; BXVII.68). ¹ Ex. : Agni (Abhi. VI). & Varuṇa (ibid. IV).

² Ex. (Rāvaṇa disguised as an ascetic addressed by Rāma (Pratimā. V.). The Jester in Pratijñā (III) addressing the Jain monk (śramaṇaka) as bhaavam (bhagavan) to create laughter ; bhadanta would have been the proper term in this case. See below 15.

³ Read here nānāvratadhara (bha in B) for nānāśrutadhara (B) and nānāśrutidhara (C). Ascetics belonging to minor heterodox sects

336 THE NATYASASTRA [ XIX. 8-

Addressing the Brahmin

5. The Brahmin is to be addressed as “noble one” (ārya),¹

Addressing the king

And the king [is to be addressed as “great king” (mahārāja).²

Addressing the teacher

The teacher [is to be addressed] as “professor” (ācārya).³

Addressing an old man

And an old man [is to be addressed] as “father” (tāta).⁴

Brahmins addressing the king

6. Brahmins may address the kings at their pleasure, by their names. This should be tolerated, for the Brahmins are to be adored by the kings.

Brahmins addressing ministers

7. A minister is to be addressed by Brahmins as “Councillor” (amātya) or “minister” (saciva),¹ and by other persons, inferior to them (i.e. Brahmins) he [is] always [to be addressed] as “sir” (ārya).²

Addressing the equals

8. One is to accost one’s equals by the name with which they are styled¹.

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seem to have been included in this term. Ag. reads nānāśrutadharaḥ and explains this as bahuśrutaḥ.

5 (C.5; B.XVII.69). ¹ Brahmin (Keśavadāsa) in Madhyama. addressed by Bhīma.

² Ex. Sumantra addressing Daśaratha (Pratimā, II), and Vibhīṣaṇa addressing Rāvaṇa (Abhiṣeka II).

³ Ex. Cāṇakya addressed by his disciple (Mudrā, I).

⁴ Ex. Bharata addressing Sumantra the old charioteer (Pratimā, VI).

6 (C.6; B.XVII.70). ¹ Ex. Indra disguised as a Brahmin addressing Karṇa (Karṇa.), Cf. Cāṇakya addressing Candragupta mostly as Vṛṣala (or Śūdra) in Mudrā.

7 (C.7; B.XVII.71). ¹ No example of this rule seems to be available in any extent drama. See note 2 below.

² Ex. The door-keeper (pratīhārī) addressing Yaugandharāyaṇa (Pratijñā, I.). But curiously enough Rākṣasa has been addressed not as ‘Ārya’ but as ‘Amātya’ (counciller) by the door-keeper, and by his friend Virādhagupta too he is addressed likewise (Mudrā, II).

8 (C.8; B.XVII.72). ¹ Ex. Cāṇakya addressing Rākṣasa and vice versa (Mudrā, VII.).