नाट्यशास्त्रम् (प्रथम भाग - अभिनवभारती एवं हिन्दी टीका सहित)

324 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 6-

Vowels and simple consonants

6. Sounds following e and o (i.e. ai and au) and the Anu-svāra [in the alphabet] do not occur in Prakrit. And such is the case with sounds between va and sa (i.e. śa and ṣa) and the final sounds in the ka, ca and ta groups (i.e. ṅa, ña, ṇa).¹

7. Ka, ga, ta, da, ya, and va are dropped [in Prakrit] and the meaning is carried by the [remaining] vowels, and kha, gha, tha, dha and bha become ha without giving up the meaning of the word.

8. In Prakrit ra does neither precede nor follow [a consonantal sound] except in cases of bhadra, vodra, hrada, candra and the like.¹

9. Kha, gha, tha, dha and bha always become ha in words such as mukha, megha, kathā and vadhu prabhūta.¹ And as for ka, ga, ta, da, ya² and va, the vowel³ following them always represents them.

10. Ṣa it should be known, always become cha in words such as ṣatpada.¹ The final syllable of kila should be ra and the word khalu should become khu.

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6 (C. 6-8; B.XVII.7). ¹ This together with three following couplets are written not in Skt. but in Prakrit. Hence they seem very much to be an interpolation. The first of these occurs as a quotation (without the author's name) in a late metrical work edited by M.H.D. Velankar (Annals of the Bhandarkar Inst. XIV. 1932-33, pp. 1-38, citation, Nitti-Dolci, p.71).

7 (C.6-8; B.XVII.8).

8 (C.6-8; B.XVII.9). ¹ Nitti-Dolci and B. reads padra for draha. See chāyā and Ag. and also PSM. for the Pkt. words. Cf. Nitti-Dolci, p.71.

9 (C.6-8; B.XVII.10). ¹ Evidently hard aspirates in case of other words did not change. Ag's. example of such words are kheṭa, parigha, atha. This speaks of the high antiquity of the Pkt. of the NŚ.

² The non-aspirate consonants mentioned here are to be understood as devoid of the inherent vowel 'a'.

³ The word saro (=svaraḥ) here means "vowel" and not "sound". Cf. Nitti-Dolci p.71.

10 (C.9; B.XVII.11). ¹ Ag. is silent about this ṣaṭpadādi gaṇa.

-XVIII. 18 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 325

11. Ṭa becomes ḍa in words such as bhaṭa, kuṭī and taṭa, and śa and ṣa always become sa, e.g. viṣa (visa) and śaṃkā (saṅkā).

12. In words such as itara and the like ta standing not in the beginning of a word becomes an indistinctly pronounced da.$^1$ Ḍa in words such as vaḍavā and taḍāga becomes la.

13. Ṭha in words such as śaṭha, pāṭha, pīṭhi and the like become ḍha, and na becomes ṇa everywhere in pronunciation.$^1$

14. Pa [in it] changing into va, āpana becomes āvana. And except in case of words like yathā and tathā tha becomes dha.

15. One is to know paruṣa as pharusa, for pa becomes pha [in it], and mṛga will be changed to mao while mṛta will also be mao.$^1$

16. Au employed in words like auṣadha etc. will change to o, and ca in words such as pracaya, acira and acala etc. will change into ya.$^1$

17. Thus [change] the sounds in Prakrit when they are not mutually connected (i.e. they are simple). Now I shall describe the change of conjunct sounds.

Conjunct consonants

18. Śca, psa, tsa and thya change into (c)cha, bhya, hya and dhya into (j)jha, ṣṭa into ṭṭha, sta into ttha, sma into mha, kṣṇa and ṣṇa into ṇha, and kṣa into (k)kha.

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11 (C.10; B.VII.12).

12 (C.11; B.XVII.13). $^1$ This indistinctly pronounced da is perhaps a spirantised da. Ag. thinks that it is somewhat like a la. (अस्पष्टो लघुप्रयत्न उच्चार्यः येन क्रमाड्कारस्य लकारच्छाया भवति यथा उदरं उलरं).

13 (C.12; B.XVII.14 f.n.). $^1$ B. reads the first hemistich as follows : वर्डनमते च भावे धकारवर्णोऽपि ढत्वमुपयाति and C. too differently. Dha in vardhana (i.e. in combination with ra) changes into ḍha.

14 (C.12b-13a, B.XVII.15).

15 (C.13b 14a B.XVII.16). $^1$ The word maa (maya) from mṛta as well as mṛga had its spirantised da reduced to ya-śruti which however was not shown in writting during the early days of this phonetic change (See IHQ. VIII. 1933, suppl. p. 14-15).

16 (C.14b-15a; BXVII.17). $^1$ This ya-śruti for ca did not probably at once lead to its graphic elimination.

17 (C.15b-16a; B.XVII.18).

18 (C.16b-18a; B.XVII.19.)

326 THE NĀṬYAŚĀSTRA [ XVIII. 19-

19. Āścarya will be acchariya and niścaya nicchaya, utsāha ucchāha and pathya, paccha.¹

20. Tubhyam becomes tujjhaṃ, mahyam majjhaṃ, vindhya viṃjha, daṣṭa daṭṭha and hasta hattha.

21. Grīṣma becomes gimha, ślakṣṇa saṇha, uṣṇa uṇha¹; jakṣa jakkha, paryaṅka pallaṃka.

22. There is metathesis in the group hma occurring in words such as brahman etc., and in bṛhaspati [the group spa] becomes pha, yajña becomes jaṇṇa, bhīṣma bhimha.

23. Ka and similar other letters (sound) while on the top of another letter (sound) will have to be disjointed in their pronunciation¹.

24. Thus are to be learnt the pronunciation of Prakrit and Sanskrit. I shall discuss hereafter the classification of regional languages (deśa-bhāṣā).

25. The [languages] to be used in drama are of four types in which Recitation should be either of the refined (saṃskṛta) or of the vulgar (prākṛta) kind.

Four types of languages

26. The Super-human Language (atibhāṣā), the Noble Language (ārya-bhāṣā)¹ the Common Language (jāti-bhāṣā) and the Language of Other Animals (yonyantarī bhāṣā)² are the [four] languages occurring in plays.

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19 (C.18b-19a; B.XVII.20a-21a). ¹ B. reads one additional hemistich between 19a and 19b.
20 (C.19b-20a; B.XVII.21b-22a).
21 (C.20b-21a; B.XVII.22b-23a). ¹ C. reads kṛṣṇaḥ kaṇhaḥ.
22 (C.21b-22a; B.XVII.23b-24a).
23 (C.22b-23a; B.XVI.24b-25a). ¹ This probably relates to svara-bhakti (anaptyxis). Kilesa (kleśa), radana (ratna) and duvāra (dvāra) may be examples of this.
24 (C.23b-24a; B.XVII.25b-26a). ¹ Cf. Nitti-Dolci. p.78.
25 (C.24b-25a; B.XVII.26b-27a).
26 (C.25b-26a; B.XVII.27b-28a). ¹ Some commentators think that āryabhāṣā means a language in which Vedic words preponderate (Ag.).
² ·C. reads jātyantarī and yonyantarī.

-XVIII. 30 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 327

The Superhuman and the Noble Languages

27. The Super-human Language is for the gods, and the Noble language for the kings¹. These have the quality of refinement² (saṃskāra) and are current over the seven great divisions³ (dvīpa) of the world.

The Common Language

28. The Common Language prescribed for use [on the stage] has various forms¹. It contains [many] words of Barbarian (mleccha) origin and is spoken in Bhārata-varṣa [only]².

The Animal Language

29. The Language of Other Animals¹ have their origin in animals domestic or wild and in birds of various species, and it follows the Conventional Parctice (nāṭya-dharmī).

Two kinds of Recitation

30. The Recitation in the Common language which relates to the four castes, is of two kinds, viz, vulgar (prākṛta) and refined (saṃskṛta).

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27 (C.26b-27a; B.XVII.28b-29a). ¹ The atibhāṣā and āryabhāṣā are possibly the dialects of the pure Indo-Aryan speech. It should be noted that "saṃskṛta" (Sanskrit) as the name of a language is absent here. Bhoja takes ati-, ārya- and jāti- bhāṣas respectively as śrauta (Vedic), ārṣa (Puranic) and laukika (literary) speeches. See Śr. Pr. pp.191ff.

² Read saṃskāraguṇa for saṃskāra-pāṭhya (the ms. bha in B.).

³ Read saptadvīpa-pratiṣṭhitā for samyannῡya pratiṣṭhitā (the ms. bha in B.).

28 (C.26b-27a; B.XVII.29b-30a). ¹ Read vividha-jātibhāṣā ; vividha (ca, da in B.) for dvividha.

² The common speech or the speech of the commoners is distinguished here from that of the priests and the nobility by describing it as containing words of Barbarian (mleccha) origin. These words seem to have been none other than vocables of the Dravidian and Austric languages. They entered Indo-Aryan pretty early in its history. See S. K. Chatterji, Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, Calcutta, 1926 pp. 42,178.

29 (C.27b-29a; B.XVII.30b-31a). ¹ Neither the NŚ. nor any extant drama gives us any specimen of the conventional language of lower animals, which is to be used in the stage.

30 (C.28b-29a; B.XVII.31b-32a).

328 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 31-

Occasion for Skt. Recitation

31. In case of the self-controlled (dhīra) Heroes of the vehement (uddhata), the light-hearted (lalita), the exalted (udātta), and the calm (praśānta) types, the Recitation should be in Sanskrit.

Occasion for Pkt. Recitation

32. Heroes of all these classes are to use Prakrit when the occasion demands that.¹

33. ¹In case of even a superior preson intoxicated with the kingship (or wealth) or overwhelmed with poverty no Sanaskrit should be used.²

34. To persons in disguise¹, Jain monks², ascetics³, religious mendicants⁴ and jugglars should be assigned the Prakrit Recitation.

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31 (C. 29b-30a; B.XVII.32b-33a).
32 (C.30b-31a; B.XVII.33b-34a). ¹ As Arjuna disguised as Bṛhannalā.
33 (C.31b-32a; B.XVII.34b-35a). ¹ We follow C. text.
² No extant drama seems to furnish any illustration of this rule. B. reads one additional hemistich before this.
34 (C.32b-33a; B.XVII.36). ¹ vyājaliṅgapraviṣṭānām = persons in disguise of different kinds of professional and religious mendicants etc.. See Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra. An example of this is Indra in the guise of a Brahmin speaking Pkt. in Karṇa. ascribed to Bhāsa. Nitti-Dolci takes this expression as an adjective of śramaṇānāṃ etc.. But it need not be construed like this. This part of the rule seems to relate to Skt. speaking characters assuming disguise. Virādhagupta (Mudrā II.) assuming the guise of a snake-charmer, is an example of such characters. And so are Yaugandharāyaṇa and Rumaṇvān in the Pratijñā, (III) ascribed to Bhāsa.
² Śramaṇa (Pkt. samaṇa). The word is to be taken to mean here a Jain monk. Cf. Jadi vattham avaṇemi samaṇao homi, Avi. (V.) ascribed to Bhāsa; śramaṇa was sometimes used also in connexion with the Buddhists. See below 36.
³ tapasvin.—It appears that the author of the NŚ. meant by this term ascetics in general. Though we find Brahmin ascetics in ancient literature, the institution of asceticism was most probably of non-Aryan origin. This seems to be justification of assigning Prakritic Recitation to all the ascetics irrespective of their sectarian affiliation.
⁴ bhikṣu.—religious mendicant in general. It should not be restricted to Buddhists alone. The alternative name of the Brahma-sūtra is the Bhikṣu-sūtra.

-XVIII. 35] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 329

35. ¹Similarly Prakrit should be assigned to children, persons possessed of spirits of lower order, women in feminine character² persons of low birth, lunatics and phallus-worshippers³.

Exception to the rule for Pkt. Recitation

36. But to itinerant recluses¹, sages², Buddhists³; pure Śrotriyas⁴ and others who have received instruction [in the Vedas] and wear costumes suitable to their position (liṅgastha)⁵ should be assigned Sanskritic Recitation.

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35 (C.33b-34a; B.XVII.37 f.n. 9). ¹ B.'s reading in translation is as follows : Similarly Pkt. should be assigned to Śaiva teachers, lunatics, children, persons possessed of spirits of lower order, women, persons of low birth and hermaphrodites (B.XVII.37).

² In a queen's role a woman may sometimes speak Skt. See 38-39 below. The parivrājikā in the Mālavi. speaks Skt.

³ saliṅga.—This possibly means the member of a sect which like the Liṅgāyets wears a phallus suspended from their neck.

36 (C.34b-35a; B.XVII.38). ¹ parivrāj—a person of the fourth āśrama. A recluse belonging to the Vedic community.

² muni.—This word, probably of non-Indo-Aryan origin meant in all likelihood "wise man." See NŚ. I. 23 note 1. In the ancient world, wisdom was usually associated with religious and spiritual elevation. This might have been the reason why the word was applied to persons like Vasiṣṭha and Nārada.

³ śākya.—a follower of the Buddha. There is nothing very astonishing in Skt. being assigned to Buddhist monks. Buddhist teachers like Aśvaghoṣa, Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Vasubandhu were almost all great Sanskritists, and the Mahāyāna literature was written in Sanskrit of corrupt as well as of pure variety. This might have been the general linguistic condition before the schism arose among the Buddhists. In Aśvaghoṣa's Śāriputra-prakaraṇa Buddha and his disciples speak Sanskrit (Keith, Skt. Drama p.82). Aśvaghoṣa assigns Skt. to a śramaṇa, as well (loc. cit). This śramaṇa was possibly a Buddhist ; see 34 f.n.

⁴ cokṣeṣu (caikṣeṣu, C.) śrotriyeṣu—for the pure śrotriya or a learned Brahman. The adjective "pure" (cokṣa) used with śrotriya is possibly to separate him from an apostate who might have entered Jain or any other heterodox fold and was at liberty to use Pkt.

⁵ śiṣṭāḥ liṅgasthāḥ—religious mendicants who have received instruction (in Vedas).

42

330 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 37-

37. Sanskrit Recitation is to be assigned to queens, courtezans¹, female artistes to suit special times and situations in which they may speak.

38-39. As matters relating to peace and war, the auspicious and inauspicious movements of planets and stars and cries of birds concern the well-being or distress of the king these are to be known by the queen, and for this reason she is to be assigned Sanskritic Recitation in connexion with these (lit. in that time)¹.

40. For the pleasure of all kinds of people, and in connexion with the practice of arts, the courtezans are to be assigned Sanskritic Recitation which can be easily managed.

41. For learning the practice of arts and for amusing the king the female artiste has been prescribed to use Sanskrit in dramatic works¹.

42. The pure speech of the Apsarasas¹ is that which has been sanctioned by the tradition (i.e. Sanskrit), because of their association with the gods ; the popular usage conforms to this [rule].

43. One may however at one's pleasure assign Prakritic Recitation to Apsarasas [while they move] on the earth. [But to the Apsarasas in the role of] wife of a mortal also [the same] should be assigned when an occasion (lit. reasons and need) will occur¹.

44. In the production of a play their [native] language should not be assigned to tribes such as, Barbaras, Kirātas, Andhras and Dramiḍas¹.

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37 (C.35-36a; B.XVII.39). ¹ An example of this is Vasantasenā speaking Skt. (Mṛcch. IV.).

38-39 (C.36b-38a; B.XVII.40-41). ¹ This rule cannot possibly be illustrated by any extant drama. 40 (C.38b-39a; B.XVII.42).

41 (C.39b-40a; B.XVII.43). ¹ There is possibly no example of this in any extant drama.

42 (C.40b-41a; B.XVII.44). ¹ No play with an Apsaras speaking Skt. is available. All the Apsarasas in Vikram, speak Pkt.

43 (C.41b-42a; B.XVII.45). ¹ Read mānuṣīṇām (ca in B) for mānuṣāṇām. Urvaśī is an example of an Apsaras who became the wife of a mortal. (Vikram).

44 (C.42b-43a; B.XVII.46). ¹ See NŚ. XXIII. 99 notes.

-XVIII. 49 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 331

45. To pure tribes of these names, should be assigned dialects current in Śaurasena.

46. The producer of plays may however at their option use local dialects; for plays may be written in different regions [for local production].

Seven major dialects

47. The Seven [major] dialects (bhāṣā) are as follows : Māgadhī, Āvantī [Āvantījā], Prācyā, Śaurasenī (Śūrasenī), Ardhamāgadhī, Bāhlīkā, Dākṣiṇātyā¹.

48. In the dramatic composition there are, besides, many less important dialects (vibhāṣā)¹ such as the speeches of the Śakāra, Ābhīras, Caṇḍālas, Śabaras, Dramiḍas², Oḍras³ and the lowly speech of the foresters.

Uses of major dialects

49. [Of these] Māgadhī is assigned to guards (lit. inmates) of the royal harem¹, and Ardhamāgadhī to menials, princes and leaders' of merchants' guilds².

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45 (C.43b-44a; B.XVII.47). 46 (C.44b-45a; B.XVII.48).

47 (C.45b-46a; B.XVII.49). ¹ Māgadhī, Śaurasenī and Ardha-māgadhī are well-known. But any old and authentic description of Āvantī, Prācyā, Bāhlīkā and Dākṣiṇātyā Pkt. seems to be non-existent. According to Pṛthvīdhara a very late authority, Mṛcch. contains the specimens of Āvantī and Prācyā only. It is to be noted that the present list does not include Mahārāṣṭrī.. See M. Ghosh. "Mahārāṣṭrī a late phase of Śaurasenī", JDL.

48 (C.46b-47a; B.XVII.50). ¹ By the word vibhāṣā Pṛthvīdhara understands vividhā bhāṣa hīnāpātra-prayojyatvād hīnāḥ. See Pischel, Grammatik, §§ 3-5. No old and authentic specimen of the vibhāṣās has reached us. According to Pṛthvīdhara the Mṛcch. contains Śākārī and Cāṇḍālī besides Ḍhakkī which last the NŚ. does not know.

² It is curious that after forbidding the use of languages like Dramiḍa (Dramila) in 44 above, the author is including it among the dialects that can be allowed in dramatic works. One possible explanation of this anomaly may be that here we meet with a late interpolation, and passages from 48-61 belong to a later stratum of the text.

³ Read draviḍoḍrajāḥ for dramilāndhrajāḥ, B; draviḍodrajāḥ, C. See 55 note 1.

49 (C.47b-48a; B.XVII.51). ¹ For a list of such persons see DR.II.74.

² According to Pischel this passage assigns AMg. to servants,

332	THE NATYASASTRA	[ XVIII. 50-

50. Prācyā is the language of the Jester¹ and the like ; and Āvanti is of the rogues (dhūrta)². The Heroines, and their female friends are also to speak Śaurasenī when not in any difficulty.

51. To soldiers, gamesters, police chief of the city and the like should be assigned Dākṣiṇātyā¹, and Bāhlīkī is the native speech of the Khasas who belong to the north,

Uses of minor dialects

52. Śākarī should be assigned to the Śakāra and the Śakas and other groups of the same nature¹, and Cāṇḍālī to the Pulkasas and the like.²

53. To charcoal-makers, hunters and those who earn their

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Rajputs (rājaputra) and leaders of merchants' guild (śreṣṭhi). See Grammatik § 17. But no extant drama seems to illustrate this rule. For Candanadāsa who is a śreṣṭhi, does not speak AMg. (Mudrā, I) while Indra in the disguise of a Brahmin speaks this dialect of Pkt. (Karṇa. ascribed to Bhāsa).

50 (C.48b-49; B.XVII.52). ¹ According to Pṛthvīdhara Viduṣaka in the Mṛcch. speaks Prācyā the sole characteristic of which is abundance of pleonastic ka. See Pischel, Grammatik, Grammatik, § 22.

² C. yojyā bhāṣā for dhūrtānām apy. According to Pṛthvīdhara the the two policemen Vīraka and Candanaka in the Mṛcch. (VI.) speak Āvanti. But according to the latter's own admission he was a Southerner and a man of Karṇāṭa. No old and authentic description of this dialect is available, see Pischel, Grammatik § 26.

51 (C.49b-50a: B.XVII.53). ¹ Candanaka's language in Mṛcch. in spite of Pṛthvīdhara's testimony to the contrary may be taken as a specimen of Dākṣiṇātyā. See 50 note 2 above. No old and authentic description of this dialect is available. Cf. Pischel, Grammatik § 24.

52 (C.50b-51a; B.XVII.54). ¹ śakārāṇām śakādīnām for śakāraghoṣakādīnām (B.), and śabarāṇām śakādīnām (C). According to Pṛthvīdhara Śakāra in Mṛcch. speaks Śākarī dialect. Cf. Pischel, Grammatik, § 24.

² Pṛthvīdhara thinks that Caṇḍālas in Mṛcch (V.) speak the Cāṇḍālī dialect. Cf. Pischel, Grammatik, § 25.

·53 (C.51b-52a; B.XVII.55). ¹ B. śakāra-bhāṣa for śabara-bhāṣā. This dialect seems to have been the parent of the modern Sora language.

.XVIII. 58 ] RULES ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES 333

livelihood by [collecting] wood and leaves should be assigned Śābarī¹ as well as the speech of forest-dwellers.

54. For those who live in places where elephants, horses, goats, sheep, camels or cows are kept [in large numbers] Ābhīrī¹ or Śābarī² has been prescribed, and for forest-dwellers and the like, Drāviḍī³ [is the language].

55. Oḍrī is to be assigned to diggers of subterranean passages, prison-warders, grooms for horses¹ ; and Heroes and others like them while in difficulty are also to use Māgadhi for self-protection.

Distinguishing features of various local dialects

56. ¹To the regions [of India] that lie between the Ganges and the sea, should be applied a dialect abounding in e²

57. To the regions that lie between the Vindhyas and the sea should be assigned a language abounding in na¹ ( or ta).

58. Regions like Surāṣṭra and Avanti lying on the north of the Vetravatī one should assign a language abounding ca¹.

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² See 54 note 3.
54 (C.52b-54a; B.XVII.56). ¹ Ābhīrī dialect is not available in any extant drama. ² See 53 note 1.
³ Drāviḍī dialect is not available in any extant drama. It is possible that it was not a pure Dravidian speech (See 44 above). Possibly a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect in which Dravidian phonetic and lexical influence predominated was meant by this. Its habitat was in all likelihood some region of North India. Cf. Nitti-Dolci, p. 120-122.
55 (C-54b-55a; B.XVII.57). ¹ Emend oḍhrikārasarakṣasāṃ (ḍha in B) into oḍrī kārāśvarakṣatāṃ (C. oṣṭrikānāñ ca rakṣatāṃ and B. sandhikārāśvarakṣātāṃ); for Oḍri Pkt. see 48 note 3. and Nitti-Dolci, pp. 120 f.n. 4 and 122.
56 (C.55b-56a; B.XVII.59). ¹ B. again reads 44 after 55.
² This "e" is perhaps termination of the nominative singular the a-bases in AMg.
57 (C.53; B.XVII.60). ¹ This relates to a dialect of Pkt. which changes na always into ṇa. Though according to some grammarians Pkt. is always to change na into ṇa, it seems that such was not strictly the case with all its dialects. For example in the so-called Jain Pkt. (AMg. of Hemacandra) has initial n and intervocal ṇṇ.
58 (C.56b-57a; B XVII.61). ¹ It seems that at the time of the

334 THE NATYASASTRA [ XVIII. 59-

59. To people who live in the Himalayas, Sindhu and Sauvīra a language abounding in u should be assigned.¹

60. To those who live on the bank of the Carmaṇvatī river and around the Arvuda mountain a language abounding in o¹ (or ta) should be assigned.

61. These are the rules regarding the assignment of dialects in plays. Whatever has been omitted [here] should be gathered by the wise from the popular usage.

Here ends Chapter XVIII of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra which treats of the Rules regarding the Use of Languages.

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author of the passage intervocal ca in this particular region was yet maintained or dental t sounds were mostly changed into c sound (as in ciṭṭha for tiṣṭha).

59 (C.57b-58a; B.XVII.62). ¹ This u perhaps relates to a close pronounciation of the o vowel.

60 (C. omits this ; B.XVII.63). ¹ This o perhaps relates to a open pronounciation of the u vowel.

61 (C.53b-59; B.XVII.64).

CHAPTER NINETEEN

MODES OF ADDRESS AND INTONATION

Different modes of address

1-2. These are, O the best of Brahmins, the rules on the use of languages [in a drama]. Now listen about the rules of popular modes of address¹ or the manner in which persons of equal, superior or inferior status in a play are to be addressed by those of the superior, the medium or the inferior class.²

Modes of addressing males : addressing great sages

3. As the great sages are adorable (lit. god) even to the gods they are to be addressed as “holy one” (bhagavan)¹ and their wives are also to be similarly addressed.²

Addressing gods, sectarian teachers and learned men

4. Gods,¹ persons wearing sectarian teacher's dress² and persons observing varied vows³ are to be addressed as “holy one” (bhagavan)³ by men as well as women.

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1-2 (C.1-2, B.XVII.65-66). ¹ This manner of addressing different persons includes referring to them before their ownselves or before others e.g.. In Śak. (I), Duṣyanta is referred to by his charioteer as āyuṣman and then he is addressed in the same term (Yathājñāpayati āyuṣman. āyuṣman paśya paśya).

² Rules given hereafter do not cover all the numerous and different cases occurring in the extant dramatic literature in Skt. and Pkt.

3 (C.3; B.XVII.67). ¹ Ex. Kāśyapa (Kaṇva) addressed by his disciple (Śak. IV.) Mārīca by Duṣyanta (ibid. VII.) and Rāvaṇa in ascetic's disguise by Rāma (Pratimā. V).

² No ex. of this seems to be available in any extant drama.

4 (C.4; BXVII.68). ¹ Ex. : Agni (Abhi. VI). & Varuṇa (ibid. IV).

² Ex. (Rāvaṇa disguised as an ascetic addressed by Rāma (Pratimā. V.). The Jester in Pratijñā (III) addressing the Jain monk (śramaṇaka) as bhaavam (bhagavan) to create laughter ; bhadanta would have been the proper term in this case. See below 15.

³ Read here nānāvratadhara (bha in B) for nānāśrutadhara (B) and nānāśrutidhara (C). Ascetics belonging to minor heterodox sects

336 THE NATYASASTRA [ XIX. 8-

Addressing the Brahmin

5. The Brahmin is to be addressed as “noble one” (ārya),¹

Addressing the king

And the king [is to be addressed as “great king” (mahārāja).²

Addressing the teacher

The teacher [is to be addressed] as “professor” (ācārya).³

Addressing an old man

And an old man [is to be addressed] as “father” (tāta).⁴

Brahmins addressing the king

6. Brahmins may address the kings at their pleasure, by their names. This should be tolerated, for the Brahmins are to be adored by the kings.

Brahmins addressing ministers

7. A minister is to be addressed by Brahmins as “Councillor” (amātya) or “minister” (saciva),¹ and by other persons, inferior to them (i.e. Brahmins) he [is] always [to be addressed] as “sir” (ārya).²

Addressing the equals

8. One is to accost one’s equals by the name with which they are styled¹.

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seem to have been included in this term. Ag. reads nānāśrutadharaḥ and explains this as bahuśrutaḥ.

5 (C.5; B.XVII.69). ¹ Brahmin (Keśavadāsa) in Madhyama. addressed by Bhīma.

² Ex. Sumantra addressing Daśaratha (Pratimā, II), and Vibhīṣaṇa addressing Rāvaṇa (Abhiṣeka II).

³ Ex. Cāṇakya addressed by his disciple (Mudrā, I).

⁴ Ex. Bharata addressing Sumantra the old charioteer (Pratimā, VI).

6 (C.6; B.XVII.70). ¹ Ex. Indra disguised as a Brahmin addressing Karṇa (Karṇa.), Cf. Cāṇakya addressing Candragupta mostly as Vṛṣala (or Śūdra) in Mudrā.

7 (C.7; B.XVII.71). ¹ No example of this rule seems to be available in any extent drama. See note 2 below.

² Ex. The door-keeper (pratīhārī) addressing Yaugandharāyaṇa (Pratijñā, I.). But curiously enough Rākṣasa has been addressed not as ‘Ārya’ but as ‘Amātya’ (counciller) by the door-keeper, and by his friend Virādhagupta too he is addressed likewise (Mudrā, II).

8 (C.8; B.XVII.72). ¹ Ex. Cāṇakya addressing Rākṣasa and vice versa (Mudrā, VII.).

-XIX. 11 ] MODES OF ADDRESS AND INTONATION 337

Privileged inferiors addressing superiors

A superior person may however be addressed (or referred to)$^2$ by name by inferior persons when the latter are privileged to do so$^3$.

Addressing employees, artisans and artists

9. Men and women in one's employment$^1$, and artisans and artists$^2$ are to be addressed as such (i. e. according to their status)$^3$.

Addressing persons of respect

10. A respected person is to be addressed as 'honoured sir' (bhāva), and a person of slightly less so as "comrade (mārṣaka or mārṣa).$^1$

Addressing persons of equal status

A person of equal status should be addressed as 'brother' (vayasya)$^2$ and a low person as 'hey man' (ham-ho)$^3$

The charioteer addressing the chariot-rider

11. The chariot-rider should always be addressed by the charioteer as "long-lived one" (āyuṣman)$^1$.

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$^2$ B. saparivāram, so also Ag.
$^3$ Ex. Haṁsaka referring to Yaugandharāyaṇa before the latter. (Pratijñā. I. 13.14). See above note 1.
9 (C.9; B.XVII.73). $^1$ Yaugandharāyaṇa addressing Śālaka by name (Pratijñā. I. 2. 4) and the hero Cārudatta addressing the maid-servant Radanikā (Cāru. I. 21.15).
$^2$ Ag. explains kāruka and śilpi as follows : कारुकाः सूपकारादयः शिल्पिनश्चित्रकारादयः, artisans are those that build stūpas and the like objects, artists are painters and the like.
$^3$ Ex. The king addressing Haradatta one of the teachers of dramatic art (Mālavi. II. 12.4).
10 (C.10; B.XVII.74). $^1$ Ex. pāripārśvika addressing sūtradhāra as bhāva, and sūtra° addressing pāripārśvika as mārṣa (Abhi. 1. 1.6,8). Śākāra once addressing viṭa as bhāva and next time as māliśa (māriṣa) in Cāru. I.17.3; 26.3). The word mārṣaka does not seem to occur any extant drama while māriṣa occurs very often. See Uttara. (I. 4.7) and Mālavi (I. 1. 3).
$^2$ Ex. Siddhārthaka and Samiddhārthaka addressing each other (Mudrā. VI. 2. 14, 16).
$^3$ Ex. Cāṇakya's spy addressing his disciple as ham-ho bamhaṇa, (Mudrā. I. 18.4).
11 (C.11; B.XVII.75). $^1$ Ex. Duṣyanta's priest addressing the two

43

388 THE NATYASASTRA [ XIX. 12-

Addressing an ascetic or a person with beatitude

An ascetic or a person who has attained beatitude (praśānta) is to be addressed as "blessed one" (sādho)$^2$.

Addressing princes

12. The crown-prince is to be addressed as "sire" (svāmin),$^1$ and othar princes as "young master" (bhartṛ-dāraka)$^2$.

Addressing inferior persons

Inferior persons are to addressed as "pleasing one" (saumya)$^3$, "auspicious-looking one" (bhadra-mukha)$^4$ and such terms should be preceded by 'O' (he)$^5$.

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disciples of Kāśyapa (Kaṇva) and Gautamī tapasvinaḥ (Śak.V. 11. 6).
$^2$ The word sādhu as a form of address does not seem to occur in any extant drama.

12 (C.12; B.XVII.76). $^1$ No example of this rule seems to be available in any extant drama. On the other hand svāmin is very often used in addressing a king. Ex. Yaugandharāyaṇa addressing the king Udayana (Svapna. VI. 17.1). Kauñjāyana and Bhūtika addressing the king Kuntibhoja (Avi. I. 5.3; 8.5). On the use of the word svāmin in inscriptions see Sylvain Lévi, Journal Asiatique, Ser. 9, XIX.95ff. I. Ant. Vol. XXXIII. p. 163. Sītā's maid addresses Rāma as bhaṭṭā (Pratimā. I. 9.2). The door-keeper (pratīhārī) refers to the crown-prince Rāma as bhaṭṭidā-raassa rāmassa (Pratimā. I. 2.9). and not as sāmiassa rāmassa,

$^2$ The word has been used with reference to the crown prince in Pratimā. (loc. cit. I). In referring to other princes play-wrights use the word kumāra. In Pratimā. (III. 14.12) Bharata has been addressed with this term. In Mudrā. (IV. 12.5) Malayaketu has been addressed similarly. Avimāraka, the lover of Kuraṅgī is addressed as bhaṭṭidāraa by her maid (Avi. III. 17 2).

$^3$ This use of the term saumya does not seem to occur in extant drama, and bhadra appears to have taken its place, e.g. Bharata addressing the messenger (bhaṭa) in Pratimā (III.4.2). Duṣyanta addresses his chief of the army (senāpati) similarly (Śak. II. 5.4).

$^4$ Ex. Rākṣasa's spy (puruṣa) addressing his door-keeper (Mudrā. IV. 8.2). In Abhi, (VI. 31.1) Agni (god of fire) addresses Rāma as bhadra-mukha though earlier, (VI. 26.7) he says : na me namaskāraṁ kartuṁ arhati deveśaḥ. The Jester addresses the caṇḍālas as bho bhaddamuha (Mṛcch. X. 23.3).

$^5$ It does not seem to occur before these terms in any extant drama.

-XIX. 16 ] MODES OF ADDRESS AND INTONATION 339

Addressing persons by their occupation or birth

13. In a play a person is to be addressed by a term appropriate to his birth or to the vocation, art or learning practised by him.¹

Addressing a son or a disciple

14. A disciple or a son is to be addressed by the guru or the father as "child" (vatsa)¹ "son" (putraka)², "father" (tāta)³ or by his own name or clan-name (gotra)⁴.

Addressing Buddhist and Jain Monks

15. Buddhist and Jain (nirgrantha) monks are to be addressed as "blessed sir" (bhadanta)¹.

Addressing persons of other sects

Persons of other sects² are to be addressed by terms enjoined by their own rules³.

People addressing the king

16. The king is to be addressed by his servants as well as

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13 (C.13; B.XVII.77). ¹ Not many examples of this rule seem to be available in any extant drama. In Mṛcch. (X. 20.1) Cārudatta's son addressing the Caṇḍālas as are caṇḍālā may be an example of this.

14 (C.14; B.XVII.78). ¹ Ex. Sauvīra king addressing Avimāraka (Avi. VI. 17.4). Cf. Droṇa addressing Duryodhana (Pañca. I.22.3).
² Ex. The form putraka does not seem to occur in any extant play. The from usually available form is putra. Droṇa addressing Duryodhana as putra (Pañca I. 23.3). Duryodhana addressing his son similarly (Ūru. I. 42.3).
³ No example of this seems to be available in any extant drama.
⁴ Ex. Vālī addressing Aṅgada by name (Abhi. I. 25.2). Kāśyapa (Kaṇva) addressing Śāriṅgarava by name (Śak. IV. 16.1). Instances of a son or a disciple addressed by clan-name (gotra) do not seem to occur in any extant drama.

15 (C.15; B.XVII.79). ¹ Ex. Kṣapaṇaka addressed by Rākṣasa and Siddhārthaka as bhadanta (Mudrā IV. 18.2; V. 2.1). A Buddhist monk is very rarely met with in extant dramas. Aśvaghoṣa's drama included such a character, but one cannot say from the fragments how he was addressed. (See Keith, Skt. Dr. p. 82)
² According to Ag. one is to understand by 'other sects' Pāśupatas and the like.
³ An example of such a rule is a term like bhāpuṣan or bhāsarvajña used in addressing Pāśupata: teachers (Ag.).

16 (C.16; B.XVII.80),

340 THE NATYASASTRA [ XIX. 17-

his subjects as "lord" (deva),¹ but when he is an overlord [of other kings] he is always [to be addressed] by his servants as "sire" (bhaṭṭā)².

Sages addressing the king

17-18. The king is to be addressed by sages (ṛṣi) as "king" (rājan)¹ or by the patronymic term².

The Jester addressing the king

And he should be addressed as "friend" (vayasya)³ or "king' (rājan)⁴ by the Jester (vidūṣaka).

Jester addressing the queen and her maids

The queen and her maids are to be addressed by him as "lady" (bhavatī)⁵.

The king addressing the Jester

The Jester is to be addressed by the king by his name or as "friend" (vayasya)⁶.

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¹ Ex. The Kañcukin addressing the king (Mudrā. III. 10.3). Gaṇadāsa addressing the king (Mālavi. I. 12. 8). Vibhīṣaṇa refers to Rāma as deva (Abhi. VI. 20.3) when he is not yet a king; besides this the same Vibhīṣaṇa addresses Rāvaṇa as mahārāja (Abhi. III. 15.1). See also 12 note 1.

² Ex. Yavanikā addressing the king Duṣyanta (Śak. VI. 24.10). But in Bāla. (III. 3.1) the cowherds address Saṅkarṣaṇa as bhaṭṭā, and Nandagopa too addresses Vāsudeva likewise (Bāla. I. 19. 30).

17-18 (C. 17-18; B. XVII. 81-82). ¹ Ex. Bhagavān (Yudhiṣṭhira) addressing the king Virāṭa (Pañca. II. 14.2).

² No ex. of this seems to occur in extant dramas. Nārada addresses the two kings simply as Kuntibhoja and Sauvīrarāja in Avi (VI. 20. 8, 12).

³ Ex The Jester in Śak. (II. 2.1) and Mālavi. (V. 3.18).

⁴ No example of this seems to occur in any extant drama. In Ratnā. (I. 16.35) the Jester once addresses the king as bhaṭṭā.

⁵ Bhavatī in the Jester's speech would be bhodi. Ex. The Jester addressing the queen's maid in Svapna. (IV. 0.28) also addressing the queen (Mālavi, IV. 4.23.) and addressing the queen's maid Susamgatā (Ratnā. IV. 0.30).

⁶ Examples are easily available. See Svapna, Śak. Vikram. etc. The Jester is addressed also as sakhe. See Mālavi. (IV. 1.1 and Vikram II. 18.11. etc.) and as bhadra (Vikram. II. 18.15).

-XIX. 22 ] MODES OF ADDRESS AND INTONATION 341

Women addressing their husband

19. By all women in their youth the husband should be addressed as “noble one's son” (ārya-putra)$^1$, but in other cases, the husband is to be addressed simply as “noble one” (ārya)$^2$, and in case of his being a king he may be addressed as “great king” (mahārāja)$^3$ also.

Addressing the elder and the younger brothers

20. The elder brother should be addressed as “noble one” (ārya)$^1$ and the younger brother like one's son$^2$.

These are the modes of address to be used to male characters in a play.

Modes of addressing women

21. I shall now speak of the modes of address to be used to female characters in a play.

Addressing female ascetics and goddesses

Female ascetics and goddesses are to be addressed as “holy lady” (bhagavatī)$^1$.

Addressing wives of senior persons, and elderly ladies

22. Wives of respectable seniors, and other elderly ladies (sthānīyā) are to be addressed as “lady” (bhavatī)$^1$.

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19 (C.19; B.XVII.83). $^1$ Examples are easily procurable; see Śak, Mālavi, Svapna etc.

$^2$ Ex. Naṭī in the prologue (prastāvanā) addressing the sūtradhāra her husband (Cāru. and Mudrā).

$^3$ Ex. Gāndhārī addressing Dhṛtarāṣṭra (Ūru. I. 38.2). Urvaśī refers to the king likewise (Vikram. IV. 39.2).

20 (C.20; B.XVII. 84a 85a). $^1$ Ex. Lakṣmaṇa addressing Rāma (Pratimā. I. 21.2). Sahadeva addressing Bhīma (Veṇī. I.19.12).

$^2$ Usual from in such a case is vatsa; but the younger brother is also sometimes differently addressed, e.g. by name of the mother as Saumitre, (Pratimā. I. 21.1), Kaikeyīmātaḥ, (ibid. IV. 2.21). See above 14 and 4.

21 (C.21; B.XVII.85a-86a). $^1$ The king addressing the privrājikā (Mālavi. I. 14.2) ; the Kañcukin addressing the female ascetic (tāpasī) in Vikram. (V. 9.2).

22. (C. 22; B. XVII 86b-87a). $^1$ Ex. Sumantra addressing the widowed wives of Daśaratha as bhavatyaḥ (Pratimā. III. 12.2 ). The Kañcukin addressing the Pratīhārī in Svapna. (VI. 0.6).

342 THE NATYASASTRA [ XIX. 23-

Addressing an accessible women and an old lady

An accessible woman (gamyā)$^2$ is to be addressed as "gentle-woman" (bhadre)$^3$ and an old lady as "mother" (amba)$^4$.

Addressing king's wives

23. In a play king's wives are to be addressed by their servants and attendants as "mistress" (bhaṭṭinī), "madam" (svāminī)$^1$ and "lady" (devī)$^2$.

24. [Of these], the term "lady" (devī)$^1$ should be applied to the chief queen (mahiṣī) by her servants as well as by the king. The remaining [wives of the king] are to be addressed [simply] as "mistress" (bhaṭṭinī) and "madam" (svāminī)$^3$.

Addressing unmarried princesses

25. Unmarried princesses are to be addressed by their handmaids as "young mistress" (bhartṛ-dārikā)$^1$.

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$^2$ gamyā— not within the prohibited degree of sexual relationship.

$^3$ Ex. Avimaraka addressing Kuraṅgikā (Avi. III. 19.0). Duṣyanta addressing Priyaṃvadā (Śak. I. 22.6). But the king addresses Citralekhā as bhadramukhī (Vikram. II. 15.9) as well as bhadre (ibid. III. 15.0).

$^4$ Ex. The king, Urvaśī and their son addressing the female ascetic. (Vikram. V. 12.3,5,18).

23 (C. 23; B. XVII. 87b-88a). $^1$ Ex. (i) bhaṭṭinī. Nipuṇikā addressing the queen (Vikram II. 19.19); Kāñcanamālā addressing the queen (Ratnā I. 18.11). But in Pratimā (I. 5.4) the maid (ceṭī) addresses Sītā who is not yet a queen, as bhaṭṭinī. (ii) Svāminī as a term of address to the queen does not seem to occur in any extant drama.

$^2$ Ex. The maid (ceṭī) addressing the queen Bhānumatī (Veṇī. II. 2.14).

24 (C.24; B. XVII. 88b-89a). $^1$ See above 23 note 2. For an example of king addressing the queen as devī see Pratijñā. II. 10.12.

$^2$ The term bhoginī meant those who were merely an object of enjoyment i.e. those who were not dharma-patnīs (wives elligible to take part in religious rites .

$^3$ No example of svāminī being used in addressing such a wife seems to occur in any extant drama. In Mālavi. IV. 17.8 Nipuṇikā addressing Irāvatī the second wife of Agnimitra uses the term bhaṭṭinī the very term to be used rightly for the chief queen Dhāriṇī.

25 (C.25; B. XVII. 89b-90a). $^1$ Ex. The maid (ceṭī) addressing Padmāvatī (Svapna. I. 15.11) and Kuraṅgī (Avi. III. 0.45).

-XIX. 28 ] MODES OF ADDRESS AND INTONATION 343

Addressing a sister

An elder sister is to be addressed as "sister" (bhaginī)(^2) and an younger sister as 'child" (vatse)(^3).

Addressing a Brahmin lady, a nun or a female ascetic

26. A Brahmin lady, a nun (liṅgasthā) or a female ascetic (vratinī) is to be addressed as "noble lady" (ārye)(^1).

Addressing one's wife

A wife is to be addressed as "noble lady" (ārye)(^2) or by referring to her father's(^3) or son's(^4) name.

Women addressing their equals

27. Women friends among their equals are to be accosted by one another with the word "hallo" (halā)(^1).

Addressing a handmaid

By a superior woman a handmaid (preṣyā) is to be accosted with the word "hey child" (haṃ-je)(^2).

Addressing a courtezan

28. (^1)A courtezan is to be addressed by her attendents as Ajjukā(^2), and when she is an old woman she is to be addressed by other charactors in a play as Attā(^3).

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(^2) This mode of address does not seem to occur in any extant drama. cf. Karp. I. p. 18.
(^3) Ex. Yaugandharāyaṇa in the role of an elder brother addresses the queen who is playing the role of his younger sister as vatse (Pratijñā. I. 9.11). C. om. 25a.
26 (C. 25b-26a; B. XVII. 90b-91a). (^1) No ex. of this rule seems to be available in any extant drama. Parivrājikā in Mālavi (I) and the female ascetic in Vikram. (V) could have been addresses as ārye instead of as bhagavatī. In Madhyama. Ghaṭokaca addresses the wife of the Brahmin as bhavatī.
(^2) Ex. Sūtradhāra addressing his wife (Mṛcch. I Malati. I)
(^3) e.g. Māṭharaputrī (Māṭhara's daughter). No example seems to occur in any extant drama.
(^4) e.g. Somaśarma-jananī (Somaśarman's mother). No example seems to occur in any extant drama.
27 (C. 26b-27a; B. XVII. 91b-92a). (^1) For ex. see Śak. Vikram. etc.
(^2) Ex. Sītā addressing her maid (Pratimā. I. 4.21), Irāvatī addressing Nipuṇikā (Mālavi. III. 14.1).
28 (C. 27b-28a; B. XVII. 92b-93a). (^{-1}) Read the hemistich 28a as या तत्र वृद्धा सा त्वाख्याता परिजनेन च.