प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 301 “Speak the truth. Do your duty. Neglect not the daily study (of the Veda). After having brought to your teacher his proper reward, do not cut off the line of progeny. Do not swerve from the truth. Do not swerve from duty. Do not neglect what is useful. Do not miss opportunities to become great. Do not neglect the daily duties of learning and teaching (the Veda). Do not neglect the (sacrificial) rituals due to the Gods and Fathers. Let your mother be to you like unto a god. Let your father be to you like unto a god. Let your teacher be to you like unto a god. Let your guest be to you like unto a god. Whatever actions are blameless, those should be followed, not others. Whatever good works have been performed by us, those should be emulated by you, not others. And there are some Brahmanas better than we. They should be comforted by you by giving them a seat. Whatever is given should be given with faith, not without faith,—with joy, with modesty, with fear, with kindness. If there should be any doubt in your mind with regard to any duty or with regard to conduct,—in that case conduct yourself as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, conduct themselves therein, whether they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted to duty. And with regard to things that have been spoken against, conduct your- self as Brahmanas, who possess good judgment, con- duct themselves therein, whether they be appointed or not, as long as they are not too severe, but devoted to duty.

302 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. Thus conduct yourself. This is the rule. This is the teaching. This is the true purport (Upanishad) of the Veda. This is the command. Thus should you observe. Thus should this be observed." Convocation Address to Medical Graduates. We get a very good specimen of the convocation address to medical students in Charakasamhitā Vimānasthāna, 8, 6-8. Important passages from it are given below, along with an English rendering. अनुज्ञातेन प्रविचरता [ त्वया ] पूर्वं गुर्वर्थोपान्वाहरणे यथाशक्ति प्रयतितव्यम् । कर्मसिद्धिर्मर्थसिद्धिं यशोलाभं प्रेत्य च स्वर्गमिच्छता त्वया गोब्राह्मणमादौ कृत्वा सर्वप्राणभृतां शर्माशासितव्यम् । अहरहरुत्तिष्ठता चोपविशता च सर्वात्मना चातुराणामारोग्ये प्रयतितव्यम् । जीवहेतोरपि चातुरेभ्यो नाभिद्रोग्धव्यम् । मनसापि च परस्त्रियो नाभिगमनीयास्तथा च सर्वमेव परस्वम् । निभृतवेशपरिच्छदेन भवितव्यम् । अशौण्डेनापापेनापाप- सहायेन च श्लक्ष्णशुक्लधर्म्यशर्म्यधन्यसत्यहितमितवचसा देशकालविचारिणा स्मृतिमति ज्ञानोत्थापनकरणसंपत्सु नित्यं यत्नवता च न कदाचित्............... अनपवादप्रतिकाराणां मुमूर्षूणां च तथैवासन्निहितेश्वराणां स्त्रीणामनध्यक्षाणां वौषधमनुविधातव्यम् । न च कदाचित्स्त्रीदत्तमामिषमादातव्यमननुज्ञातं भर्त्राथवाध्यक्षेण । आतुरकुलं .................. चानुप्राविश्य वाङ्मनोबुद्धी- न्द्रियाणि न क्वचित्प्रणिधातव्यानि अन्यत्रातुरादातुरोपकारार्थादातुरगतेष्व- न्येषु वा भावेषु । न चातुरकुलप्रवृत्तयो बहिर्निश्शारयितव्याः । ह्रसितं चायुःप्रमाणमातुरस्य न वर्णयितव्यम् जानतापि तत्र यत्रोच्यमानमातुरस्या- न्यस्य वाप्युपघाताय संपद्यते । विज्ञानवतापि च नात्यर्थमात्मनो ज्ञाने विकत्थितव्यम् । आप्तादपि हि विकत्थमानादत्यर्थमुद्विजन्त्येके । न चैव ह्यस्ति सुतरामायुर्वेदस्य पारम् । तस्मादप्रमत्तः शश्वदभियोगमिच्छन् गच्छेत् । ......। कृत्स्नो हि लोको बुद्धिमतामाचार्यः । शत्रुश्चाबुद्धिमतामेव । अतश्चाभिसमीक्ष्य बुद्धिमताऽमित्रस्यापि यशस्यं... पौष्टिकं... लौक्यमुपदिशतो वचः श्रोतव्य- मनुविधातव्यं चेति ।

III] CONVOCATION ADDRESSES 303 ENGLISH RENDERING "When, on getting permission, you begin to practise, you ought to make an effort to offer an ade- quate honorarium to your teacher. You should aim at the welfare of Brahmanas, cows and all other beings with a view to win practice, prosperity and fame here and heaven hereafter. Every day you should conti- nuously and whole-heartedly try to promote the health of patients. Even if your own life is in danger, you should not neglect your patients. You should not entertain an evil thought about the wealth or wives of others. Your dress should be modest, not foppish. Avoid drinking, do not commit a sin, nor help one who is committing it. Your speech should be smooth, polished, truthful and to the point. Taking all facts into consideration, you should make a deliberate endeavour to increase the stock of your knowledge and instruments. Do not give medicine to those whose disease is definitely ascertained to be incurable, or to those who are about to die, or to women, if their husbands or guardians are not present. Do not accept any fees from ladies without the assent of their husbands or guardians. When you enter a patient's room, all your attention should be centred on the patient, his expression, movements and medicines, to the exclusion of everything else. You must treat as strictly confidential all information about the patient and his family. Where there is a danger of the patient or any of his relatives receiving a shock, you should not divulge the impending death of the patient even when you are aware of it. Though well grounded in your line, you should not praise your knowledge much; for some people get disgusted even with their friends and relatives if they

304 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. are given to boasting. One can never get a mastery of the entire medical science; unelated, one should therefore pass one's time in making a constant effort to learn something more. A wise man will indeed gather something from every quarter; a fool only thinks otherwise, and shows jealousy. Taking all things into consideration, a wise physician should listen to and derive benefit from the discoveries or observations even of an enemy, if they are calculated to promote one's fame and prosperity in this world.

APPENDIX IV FOUR VEDAS, SIX ANGAS, TEN GRANTHAS, FOURTEEN VIDYĀS, EIGHTEEN ŚILPAS AND SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS. In connection with the curriculum in ancient India, the above expressions are frequently used; we therefore propose to explain them briefly in this appendix. Four Vedas :—They are the Rigveda, the Yajur- veda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda. These were regarded as revealed, but there was a time when a deep prejudice was entertained against the Atharvaveda, which was therefore excluded from studies. The remaining three Vedas were therefore called Trayī. Six Angas :—These were the following; 1 Śikshā, the science of pronunciation ; Kalpa, the science of ritualism ; Vyākaraṇa, grammar; Nirukta, philology, Chandas, prosody, and Jyotisha, astronomy. Dasa Granthas :—These were the following: 1 One's own Veda 2. Its Brāhmaṇa 3 and Āraṇyaka 4 Nighaṇṭu and the six Aṅgas enumerated above. A graduate, who had mastered all these, was known as a Daśagranthī Brahmana. Fourteen Vidyas : During the Pauranic period, a person was regarded as a distinguished scholar if he had mastered fourteen Vidyās. These were usually taken to be 1-4 Vedas, 5-10 Shaḍaṅgas, 11 Dharma- śāstra (sacred and secular law) 12 Purāṇas, 13 Mīmānsā (science of exegis) and 14 Tarka (logic) 20

306 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. Eighteen Silpas : There is no authoritative enu- meration of eighteen śilpas. In one place the Milinda- pañha includes the four Vedas, the Purāṇas, philosophy, history, etc. among them (Vol. I, p. 6), but there is no doubt that this is wrong. The basic conception of śilpas is a profession requiring special skill¹ and the Vedic age denoted by this term arts like vocal music, instru- mentalmusic and dancing ² Taxila university claimed to specialise in eighteen śilpas, and archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming and the art of finding treasures figure among the subjects taught there³. These five therefore must have been included in the śilpas. Conveyancing and law, mathematics, accoun- tancy, agriculture, commerce, cattle breeding, and issatha (?) are also mentioned as śilpas in the Buddhist literature.⁴ When we remember the basic idea of śilpa, we can include sculpture and engineering also among the traditional eighteen śilpas. The following there- fore most probably constituted the eighteen śilpas. 1 Vocal music 2 Instrumental music 3 Dancing 4 Painting 5 Mathematics 6 Accountancy 7 Engineer- ing 8 Sculpture 9 Agriculture 10 Cattle-breeding 11 Commerce 12 Medicine 13 Conveyancing and Law 14 Administrative training 15 Archery and military art 16 Magic 17 Snake charming and poison antidotes 18 The Art of finding hidden treasures.

1. एतद्धि दिव्यं शिल्पं न मानुषम् । Kss., XXV, 175
2. त्रिवृद्वै शिल्पं नृत्यं गीतं वादित्रम् । S. Br., XXIX, 5
3. Jātakas Nos. 80 and 537 ; Mahāvagga, VII. 1. 6; Jātaka Nos 185., 256 & 416.
4. M. N., Vol. I p. 85, A. N., Vol. IV pp. 281-2.

IV] SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS 307 Sixty-four Kalas : According to Vātsyāyana I.3.16, the following are the traditional sixty-four Kalās, which a cultured lady was expected to master :— १ गीतम् २ वाद्यम् ३ नृत्यम् ४ आलेख्यम् ५ विशेषकच्छेद्यम् ६ तण्डुलकुसुमवलिविकाराः ७ पुष्पास्तरणम् ८ दशनवसनांगरागः ९ मणि- भूमिकामे १० शयनरचनम् ११ उदकवाथम् १२ उदकाघातः १३ चित्राश्च योगाः १४ माल्यग्रथनविकल्पाः १५ शेखरकापीडयोजनम् १६ नेपथ्यप्रयोगाः १७ कर्णपत्रभंगाः १८ गन्धयुक्तिः १९ भूषणयोजनम् २० ऐन्द्रजालाः २१ कौचुमाराश्च योगाः २२ हस्तलाघवम् २३ विचित्रशाकयूषभक्ष्यविकारक्रिया २४ पानकरसरागासवयोजनम् २५ सूचीवानकर्माणि २६ सूत्रक्रीडा २७ वीणा- डमरुकवाद्यानि २८ प्रहेलिका २९ प्रतिमाला ३० दुर्वाचकयोगाः ३१ पुस्तक- वाचनम् ३२।नाटकाख्यायिकादर्शनम् ३३ काव्यसमस्यापूरणम् ३४ पट्टिका- वेत्रवानविकल्पः ३५ तक्षकर्माणि ३६ तक्षणम् ३७ वास्तुविद्या ३८ रूप्य- रत्नपरीक्षा ३९ धातुवादः ४० मणिरागाकरज्ञानम् ४१ वृक्षायुर्वेद‌योगाः ४२ मेषकुक्कुटलावकयुद्धविधिः ४३ शुकसारिकाप्रलापनम् ४४ उत्साद्ने संवाहने केशमर्दने च कौशलम् ४५ अक्षरमुष्टिकाकथनम् ४६ म्लेच्छित- विकल्पाः ४७ देशभाषाविज्ञानम् ४८ पुष्पशटिका ४९ निमित्तज्ञानम् ५० यन्त्रमातृका ५१ धारणामातृका ५२ सम्पाठ्यम् ५३ मानसीकाव्यक्रियाः ५४ अभिधानकोशः ५५ छन्दोज्ञानम् ५६ क्रियाकल्पः ५७ छलितकयोगाः ५८ वस्त्रगोपनानि ५९ द्यूतविशेषः ६० आकर्षंक्रीडा ६१ बालकीडनकानि ६२-४ वैनयिकीनां वैजयिकीनां व्यायामकीनां च विद्यानां।ज्ञानम्। Owing to want of space it is not possible to explain the meaning of each of the 64 kalās enume- rated above. It would suffice to say that Nos. 23-4 refer to the art of cooking, Nos. 5, 8, 15 and 44 to personal toilette of women requiring skill in the use of ointments for the body, paints for the teeth, etc. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 27 enumerate fine arts like music, dancing and painting. Arts necessary for home and personal decorations are mentioned in Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10 14-19, 48 and 58 and they include garland making, decoration of the floor, the preparation of the bed,

308 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. proper use and care of dress and ornaments etc. Women, who were usually fond of ornaments, were expected to be able to appreciate correctly the value and quality of the different varieties of gold, etc, and Nos. 38-40 refer to the capacity in this connection. Arts useful for the housewife like sewing, patching, elementary carpentry, repairs of household tools and articles are mentioned in Nos: 25,33,35-6,37,41,44, and 49. Literary efficiency and skill of different variety is presupposed by Nos. 28-31,33,45-47 and 51-57. They require women to be skilled in reading, writing, understanding different languages, composing poems, understanding dramas, etc. Nos. 12 and 64 refer to different physical exercises and Nos. 11,20,22,26,42, 43,57,59,60 mention recreations for utilising leisure hours. The latter include magic, sleights of hand, dyūta etc. No. 61 requires every woman to know how to prepare toys for children. It will be thus seen that the 64 arts, which a woman was expected to master, endowed her with a healthy physique, taught her all arts necessary for an economic and an efficient housewife and made her a cultured companion of her husband, who could introduce her to any company of educated men and women. It is obvious that only ladies in higher sections of society could have got proficiency in 64 arts. What was their percentage we do not know.

APPENDIX V Technical terms and dates of authors, works and kings. (A. = Author ; K. = King ; D. = Date ; Q. = Queen) Agrahâra ; a village of learned Brahmana colonists. Alberuni ; Arabic A., c. 1025 A. D. Āpastamba D S. ; c. 400 B. C. Arthasâstra of Kauṭilya, c. 300 B. C. Asramas : four stages of life. Bâṇa ; poet, c. 625 A. D. Brâhmaṇa literature consists of explanations of and commentaries on the Vedas ; c. 1500 B.C. to 1000 B. C. Bhâskarâchârya : A. ; c. 1150 A-D. Bhavabhûti ; poet ; c. 725 A. D. Bhoja ; Paramara king, c. 1025 A.D. Brahmachâri ; student observing celibacy. Brahmacharya, the state of a Brahmachâri. Buddha died in c 487 B. C. Châlukya Dynasty, Later ; 973 to A D. Charaka ; An author on medicine, c 80 A. D. Chandragupta Maurya, c. 300 B.C. Chandragupta Gupta ; c. 400 A.D. Divâkarasena ; sage, c. 610 A. D. Diddâ ; Q. c. 1000 A. D. Dharmasûtras ; c. 600 B. C. to 400 B. C. Fa Hsien ; Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 400 A. D. Gâthâsaptaśatî ; c. 4th century A. D. Gauḍapâda ; philosopher, c. 700 A. D. Gautama D S., c. 400 B. C. Gâyatrî Mantra ; see p. 278. Gṛihyasûtras ; c. 700 B. C. to 500 B. C. Gupta age ; c. 300 to 500 A. D. Gurukula, see p. 132. Harsha ; K. ; 606-647 A. D. Harshacharit, c. 625 A. D. Hînayâna ; a branch of Buddhism, advocating its earlier philosophy. Its literature is mostly in Pali. Homa ; sacrifice to gods. Indo-Iranian age ; c. 2500 B. C. Ikshvâku dynasty of Āndhra country, c. 200 A. D. I-sing ; Chinese traveller in India in c. 675 A. D. Janaka ; K. in Upanishads ; c. 1200 B. C. Jâtaka period ; c. 500 B. C. Jayachandra ; K, c. 1200 B. C. Kadamba dynasty ; c. 300 A. D. to 600 A. D. Kâlidâsa ; 4th century A. D. according to some and 1st century B. C. according to others. Kanishka ; K. c. 100 A. D. Kaṇva Dynasty ; c. 50 B. C. Karman theory holds that we become what we deserve to be by our past actions. Katha republic : c. 300 B. C. Kauṭilya ; author of the Arthaśâstra ; c. 300 B. C. Kumâragupta ; K. ; c. 425 A. D. Lakshmaṇasena : K. of Bengal ; c. 1200 A. D. Mahâyâna : a later school of Buddhism, which deified the

310 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Buddha and wrote its works in Sanskrit. Mahâbhârata; book; c. 300 B. C. Mahâbhârata war; c. 1400 B. C. Mâlatîmâdhava drâma; c. 725 A.D. Mâlava republic; c. 300 B. C. to 200 A. D. Maṇḍanamiśra; A. c. 800 A D. Mantra; sacred verse or formula. Manusmṛiti; c. 300 B. C. Mauryan age; 325 to 190 B. C. Milindapañha a book: c. 1st century B. C. or A. D. Mîmânsâ school of philosophy deals with Vedic exegis and sacrifices. Muñja; K. c. 980 A. D. Nâgârjuna; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 150 A. D. Naishṭhika Brahmachâri observed celibacy to the end of his life. Nirukta; a work on Vedic exegis; c. 700 B. C. Nyâya philosophy mainly deals with the problems of logic. Pallava dynasty; c. 300 to 750 A. D. Pâṇini; famous grammarian; c. 6th century B. C. Pâthaśâla; Sanskrit school. Patwari; village accountant. Punarjanma; rebirth Purâṇas were given their present form in c. 350 A. D., though there are some later additions too. Râmâyaṇa; c. 200 B C. Râjaśekhara; poet; c. 900 A. D. Śâlivâhana dynasty; also known as Sâtavâhana dynasty c. 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. Samâvartana ceremony: at the end of the education course. Saṁgha; Buddhist order of monks. Sâṁkhya philosophy is atheistic and advocates that matter and souls are the two entities. Sandhyâ; morning and evening Vedic prayer. Śaṅkarâchârya, the great Advaitic philosopher; c. 800 A. D. Saṁskâra; ritual. Śibi republic in c. 300 B. C. Śindhurâja; K. c. 1000 A. D. Smṛitis; metrical books on sacred law; c. 300 B. C. to 800 A. D. Snâna; see Samâvartana. Śrâddha; oblations offered to a dead ancestor on the date of his death. Sugandhâ; Q. of Kashmir, c. 900 A. D. Śuṅga dynasty; c. 190 to 80 B.C. Suśruta; a work on medicine. Tol; a Sanskrit school on traditional lines. Upâkarma; see App. I C. Upanayana ceremony for initiating a student into Vedic studies. Upanishadic period; c. 1200 to 800 B. C. Uttararâmacharit drama; c. 725 A. D. Utsarjana; see App. I. C. Vaiśeshika philosophy mainly deals with atomism and logic. Vasubandhu; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 300 A. D. Vedâṅgas; see App. IV. Vedānta philosophy; mainly based on Upanishads and amplified by Śaṅkara, Râmânuja and others. Vikramâditya VI, Châlukya emperor, c. 1100 A. D. Vrata; a religious vow. Yama Smṛiti; c. 7th century A.D. Yoga philosophy concentrates on meditation and Prâṇâyâma. Yuan Chwang: Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 640 A. D.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 311 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY. RELIGIOUS SOURCES. Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Upanishads, Dharmasūtras, Gṛihyasūtras, Smṛitis, Buddhist Tripiṭakas and Jātakas. Vīramitrodaya of Mitramiśra; Jīvananda's edition; Smṛitichandrikā of Devaṇabhaṭṭa; Mysore University edition. LITERARY SOURCES. Sanskrit dramas and poems referred to in the text and notes. TECHNICAL WORKS. Charaka and Suśruta Saṁhitās. Aryabhaṭīya of Aryabhaṭa. Bṛihatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Dhanurvedasaṁhitā of Vasiṣhṭha, edited by Hardayalu Swami, Meerut, 1899. ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOURCES. Ancient Indian inscriptions as published in various archæological reports and journals like Epigraphia Indica, Indian Antiquary, etc. South Indian Epigraphy Reports. FOREIGN SOURCES. M'Crindle, Ancient India as described by Magas- thenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1926. M'Crindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great. Westminister, 1896. Legge, Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, by Fa- Hsien, Oxford, 1886. Watters, On Yuan Chwang's Travells in India, Vols. I and II, London, 1904-5.

312 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman Hwui Li, London, 1911 (New Edition). Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Religion by Itsing. Oxford 1896. Sachau, Alberuni's India, Vols. I and II, London 1888. Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, Hindi translation, Hindustani Academy, Allahabad. Cordier, Yule's Travells of Marco Polo, London, 1926. Bernier, Travells in the Mogul Empire, Oxford, 1914. MODERN WORKS. (1) GENERAL. Macdonel and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, London, 1912. Bloomfield, Rig-Veda Repitions. Harvard Oriental Series, 1916. V. A. Smith, Asoka, 3rd edition. Oxford, 1909. Vidyabhushana, A History of Indian Logic, Calcutta, 1921. Altekar, The Rāshtrakūṭas and their Times. Poona, 1934. Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, 1938. (2) BOOKS ON EDUCATION. Keay, Ancient and Later Indian Education, Oxford. Das, The Educational System of the Ancient Hindus, Calcutta, 1930, Bokil, A History of Education in India, Vol, I, Bombay, 1925. Venkatesvaram, Indian Culture through the Ages,

MODERN WORKS 313 Vol. I. Education and the Propagation of Culture, Mysore University, 1928. Bose, Indian Teachers of the Buddhist Universities, Madras, 1925. S. C. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow. Calcutta, 1893. Report of the Education Commission. 1882, along with the reports of the Provincial Committees. Munroe, A Text-book of the History of Education. Graves, A History of Education. Oshea—Social Development and Education. Nunn—Education, its Data and first Principles. Adam's Reports—Report on Vernacular Education in Bengal, 1835-8. J. M. Sen, History of Elementary Education in India, 1933. Book Company, Calcutta, H. Staunton : The Great Schools of England, London, 1877. H. A. Stark :—Vernacular Education in Bengal from 1813-1912, Calcutta 1916. R. A. Quick :—Essays on Educational Reformers. 1929. Henderson :—Text-book in the Principles of Education. Judd :—Introduction to the Scientific Study of Education. Thorndik :—Educational Psychology. Davidson :—Education of the Greek People. Driver :—Greek Education.

INDEX Admission procedure 181. Admission test 81-2, 118. Agrahāra viilages as centres of education. 139-42. 'Aims of education ; 8-20 ; how far achieved, 242-49. Aksharasvikaraṇa, a Sanskâra 265-68. Alberuni, on Brahmagupta's dishonesty, 252 ; on Hindu scholarship, 256-7, 262 ; on vernacular education, 260. Al-Idrisi, on Indian character, 245. Alms, for students, compulsory for householders. 93 Annaprāśana, a Sanskâra, 266. Apprentice system, 198-200 ; in Europe, 200, n. 2. Arabs, borrow Hindu medicine system, 188 ; on Hindu character, 245. Arts and crafts, training in, 198-202, attitude towards, 127-8, 258. Āryabhaṭa on eclipses, 252-3. Āśramas as education centres, 32-3 Association, 29-30. Ayurvedic Upanayana 289-91. Astronomy and astrology, 152, 252-3 B Begging, see under Bhikshā-charaṇa. Benares, as education centre, 110-114. Bhikshā, for students, compulsory for householders, 93. Bhikshācharaṇa, how far real in daily life, 64-66 ; why prescribed, 66 ; when a disgrace, 65. Boarding arrangements, 76 Brahmanchāri, his paraphernalia, 275-6. See under Student for further information. Brahmacharya, its duration, 89 ; rules of, 66-8. Brahmagupta, his intellectual dishonesty, 252-3. Brahmanas, and Veda teaching, 40 ; as teachers of non-vedic subjects, 41 ; as teachers, consequences, 249-50. Buddhism and education, 225- 33. Buddhist Universities, Organisation of, 73-4. Buildings of schools and colleges, 75-6. C Capitals, as education centres, 103. Caste system, its influence on education, 40-6; and Buddhism, 46-7. and Upanayana time, 272-3 ; and Sâvitrī Mantra, 278-9 ; and professions, 40-1. Character, formation of, 10-11, 66-7 ; Indian, estimate of, 244-5. Chaula and primary education, 267. Chhurikābandha, 292-3. Civic duties, and education, 248-9. Classes, their strength, 82-3. Co-education, 211. College session, its duration, 85-6. Colleges as organised institutions, non-existent in early times, 70-2 and at Taxila, 106 and Benares, 112 ; but existing at Nâlandâ, 114-6 ; Vikramasîlâ, 126-9 ; Ennāyirum, 132-3 ; Tirumukkudul, 133 ; Tiruvorriyur, 134 ; Salotgi, 130-2. Commercial education, 195-7. Corporal punishment, 27-28. Courses, their duration, 89-92 ; their organisation, 88-89-96. Cramming, 161. Creative vein disappears, 254-5.

INDEX 315

[Left Column] Culture, preservation of, as an aim of education, 17-19; 247-8. Curriculum, literary in early Vedic period, 143-5; in late Vedic period 145-6; during 1000 B. C to c. I A. D., 147-9; during 1-1200 A. D., 149-57; in Buddhist institutions, 155-7, 230-1. D Daṇḍa of the Brahmachārī, 280 Debates, 163. Debts, three 18-92. Degrees, 168-9. Dhanurvedic Upanayana, 291. Dharmaśāstra age, education in, 238-40. Discipline, rules of, 66-9. Doctors, status of, 184-189. E Eclipse, 252-3. Education, conception of, 3-8; Aims of, 8-20; Aims of, else- where, 20-1; and how far achie- ved 243-49: when to commence, 26, 272-3; to whom to be given and to whom not, 53-4; how far free, 78-81; in post-college life, 26-7; through private individuals for a long time, 71; system, not other-worldly, 249; characterised by depth, but not equally by breadth, 261; religious bias in, in India and Europe, 249; effect of religion's influence in India, 249-253; and in Europe 254; system becomes degenerated, 262-3; general esti- mate, 263-4; centres, varieties of, 103; primary, female and useful see under Primary edu- cation, Female education and Useful education respectively. Educational finance, 92-102: Educational institutes, rise of 72 Ennayiram temple college, 132-3. Examinations, 167-9.

[Right Column] F Family, and education, 33-6. Fees, 78-81; in ancient Greece 78n. 2 Female education and family, 35; two classes of girl students, 207; Coeducation, 211; Upa- nayana and Vedic studies of girls, 204-6, 212-5; attainments of lady scholars, 207-8, and Buddhism 209, 220, 231; extent of, 212; in cultured families, 217; in ordinary families, 219; in ruling families 220-2; and economic independence, 222-3; in Muslim period, 223-4; and Jainism, 244. Fine arts, training in, 200-1; and women, 217. Foreign scholarship, attitude to- wards, 257; Foreign travel, 257 Forests, as centres of education, 32-3; G Gāyatrī Mantra, 278-9. Girdle, its significance, 275. Government, recruits scholars for its posts, 98; patronises distin- guished scholars and colleges, 97: gives land grants 97; cash grants, 98, taxation exem- ptions and other concessions to scholars, 98-99; does not control education, 99-100; in the west, and education, 100-101. Grammar study, 152-3. Greek education at Taxila, 105-6. Greeks on Hindu character, 244. Gṛihaṇishkramaṇa, a Saṅskāra, 266. Guilds, in India and useful educa- tion, 196-7. Guru, see under teacher. Gurudakshiṇā, 78-80; Gurukula system, 30-2.

316 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA H Habit, importance of, 28. Harun Khalifa, invites Hindu doctors, 188. Hereditary professions, their effect on education, 197. Heritage, ancient, its preservation, an aim of education, 17-18. 247 Holidays, 86-88. Home education, 33-5. Home work, 63. Hospitals, 186-7; combined with colleges, 133-135. Hours of school, 33-5. I Ibn Batuta, on Hindu character, 245. Income of teachers, 56-7. Individual attention, 164. Industrial training, attitude to- wards, 197-8; efficiency of, 202; degenerates in medieval times, 203. Interdining, 40. Intellect, when creative, 254; when assimilative, 255; J Jesuitical educatiou, 256. Judgment, power of, in students, 15. K Kālās, 64, App. IV. Kalas college, 189. Karman theory, 37. Kharag-bandhāi, 293. Kindergarden stage, 171. Kings, their duty to patronise learning, 96; specific instances of, as patrons of learning, 97; assumed no patronising atti- tude, 100; see also under Government. Kshatriyas, their Upanayana and Vedic studies, 43. L Lady teachers, 210. Laymen, education of, 155. Learning, respect for, 95-6. Libraries, 119, 125, 158. Life-long students, 91-2. Limitation, law of, and students, 99. Literacy, extent of, 174, 179, 181; in ancient Athens and Sparta and medieval Europe. 259. Logic, courses in, 154. Liither, on state's duty to help education, 101; first encourages but later discourage reason, 254. M Malkapuram temple college, 135-6. Marco Polo, on Indian character. 245 Marriage time, 215-6; and student life, 25. Masses, education sf, 259. Medhājanana, a ritual, 281. Medical education, 184-90; and women, 219. Megasthenes, on Indian character, 244. Mekhalā, 275. Method of teaching, see under Teaching. Middle Ages, a period of intel- lectual repression, 255-6. Military education, 190-5. Monastic colleges, administration of, 73-4, 121. Monasteries, as centres of educa- tion, 73-4. 114-29; in Europe and education, 73. Monitorial system, 165-6. Monks, courses for, 156. Muslim rule, its effect on Hindu education, 183, 262-8. N Naishthika Brahmachāri, 91-2. Nālandā University, 114,123; its rise and progress, 114-5; its

INDEX 317

[Left Column]

lay-out 115;, boarding arrange- ments, 116; number of students, 117, its curriculum, 120; its standard of admission, 118; its libraries, 119; its fame in Java and Tibet, 122; how destroyed, 123. Night classes, 84-5. Nature and Nurture, their influence on education, 86-9. Non-Brāhmaṇas, as Vedic teachers 40. O Originality disappears, 255. P Pauranic age, education in, 240-2. Personality, development of, as aim of education, 12-18, 246-7. Peshwa, his help for education, 98. Philosophy, study of, 154. Physical exercises, 63. Physical punishment, 27-8. Pitṛiṛiṇa theory, and education, 18. Poetesses, 217-8. Poetry course, the study in, 153. Prakrit, during 200 B.C.—300 A.D. 151-2; development of, arrested, 152; in primary education, 180; effect of the neglect of, 259-260. Pre-school education, 38-4. Priests as teachers, in India, 40; in Europe, 78. Primary education, upto 1000 B.C. 171-2; during 1000-200 B. C., 172-5; during 200 B. C.—800 A. D. 175-80; during 800 A. D. —1200 A. D., 180-83; why not once important, 170; and Buddhism, 231. Principles of education, 22-35. Private teachers, 71; and fees, 79. Promotions, 164-167. Punishment, physical, limitation on, 27-8. Punjab, condition of education in, at c. 1850 A. D., 95-6.

[Right Column]

Purāṇas, study of, 153-4. reverence for, 252. Princes, education of, 193-4. Princesses, education of, 220-2. R Raghu, a king, his concern for education, 80 n. 2. Rāhu-Ketu theory of eclipses, 252-3. Rationalism, properly cultivated in early times, 250; discouraged in later days, 251; its effect on research, 252; discouraged in Europe also in medieval times, 254. Religion, its influence on education, 9; gives rise to educational rituals like Vidyārambha, 265; Upanayana, 268; Upākarma, 283; does not make education other-worldly, 249; helps edu- cation, 94-5, 269; discourages reason, 250-4; discourages secular studies, 249-50; Reservation of seats for subjects in colleges, 132-34. Rituals, educational, App. I Routine, importance of, 29. S Sacred Thread, App. II. Salaries of teachers, 183; 57-58. Salotgi temple college, 130-2. Samāvartana, a privilege of the few, but later extended to all 287-8; ceremony described, 288; of Dhanurveda students, 292-3. Sanskrit, ascendancy of, 151; its effect on Prakrits, 151-2 and on the spread of education 259-60; courses in, 152-3. Sarvajñapura Agrahāra college 189. Sattras for the poor students, 94. Sāvitrī-Mantra, 278-9. School-hours, 38. Self-confidence and students, 13-4

318 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

Self-respect encouraged in students, 13. Self-restraint and student life, 14. Shadaṅgas, 305. Sippas or branches of useful edu- cation, 306. Ship-building, 202. Smṛiti age, education in, 149-57. Smṛitis, study of, 153; reverence for, 252, Snāna, see under Samāvartana, Social efficiency, as aim of edu- cation, 15-16. Society, its help for education, 93-5; makes provision for poor students; 312-3. Sources, 2-3. Śrāvaṇi, why so called, see under Upākarma. Staff of the students, 280. State, see under Government. Strabo on Indian character, 244. Spinning, and women, 222-3. Students, their duties towards teachers, 58-60; how far working in their teachers' houses, 59-60; their relation' with their teachers in after- life, 62; their marriages with teacher's daughters, 61-2; daily routine of their life, 62-4; their duty to beg, how far discharged, 64-66; general rules for their life, 66-8; how far staying with their teachers, 30-1; boarding arrangements for, 76; and marriage, 25, 215-6; free boardings for, 116, 182, 185. Shudras, and Vedic studies, 44-5. Surgery, training in, 185-6. Svetaketu on post-collegiate edu- cation, 284.

T

Taxila, as centre of education, 104-10; its early history, 104; Greek influence over, 105-6; not a University of the modern type, 106; its all-India fame, 107-8; boarding arrangements, 108; subjects taught at, 109; how destroyed, 109-10. Taxation, exemption from, 99. Teacher, his importance, 48; re- garded as a spiritual father, 49; why venerated, 50, his training, 51-2; qualifications of, 52; usually a householder, 33; his income, 56-8; 133-4; his caste, 41-2; his relations with stu dents, 60-1; must not delay- education, 58; must not sti pulate for fees, 78; must take filial care of students, 55; must not with-hold anything from students, 54; domestic work in his house, 59; his high code of honour, 58; his power of inflicting physical punishment, 27-8; daughters of, marrying students, 61-2, Women as, 210. Teaching, method of, in Vedic period, 144-146; 148; in Vedic classes, 158-9 in primary schools, 176; the place of cramming in, 161; and of exposition, 162-3, individual attention in, 164; senior stu- dents' help in, 165. Temple Colleges, 74, 130-8; Text books, competition for, 156-7. Tibet and Nâlandâ scholars, 122, and Vikramasîlâ scholars, 126. Tīrthas as centres of education, 104. Tirumukkudal temple college, 133. Tiruvorriyur temple college, 134. Tols, 141, Tonsure, 267. Training colleges for teachers, 51. Treasure-trove laws, 99.

U

Ugrabhūti, his efforts to get his book prescribed, 156.

INDEX 319 Universities, 72-4. 117. Upādhyāyā, 210. Upākarma, at the beginning of the college term, 282-3; why ex- tended to all, 284-5; description of, 285-6; and the sacred thread, 286. Upanayana, its antiquity, 270; meaning of. 268-9; when per- formed, 272; performed by married men, 268-9; a simple ritual, 270; when and why made compulsory 269; as the second birth, 49 m; why prescribed for the dumb and deaf, 269; why prescribed as a Prāyaśchitta, 269 of Asvattha tree, 270; critical survey of, 274-8; significance of; the presentation to deities in, 276, presentation to the teacher in, 277; teaching of the Sāvitrī mantra in, 278; significance of the whole ritual, 281-2; of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, 43; of women, 206, 213; for Āyurveda students, 289; for Dhanurveda students, 291. Upanishad age, education in, 147-9, 236 8. Utsarjana ceremony, at the end of the session, 286-7. V Vacation, 85-6. Vaishyas, their Upanayana and Vedic studies, 43. Valabhi as a centre of education, 123-5. Varâhamibira on eclipses; 252-3: on Greeks' achievements in astro- nomy, 256. Vedic study, how far a mere cramming. 144-8; its nature in different periods, 144-147, 149; falling into background, 149; during 1-1200 A. D. 149-50; and Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, 43-44. Vernaculars, education in, 259-60; in Europe, 260, Veterinary science, 190. Vidyās, 14, App. IV. Vidyārambha Sanskāra, 265-8. Vikramasīlā Monastic college, 125-9 W Wastage in Education, 264. Women, status of, 212-14; Upana- yana of, 206; 213; as teachers, 210; as poetesses 217-18; as Vedic seers, 205; as governors, 221; and medical studies, 219; scholars mentioned in Brahmayajña, 208; literacy among 212, 223-4; age at the marriage of, 215; and military training, 221, their economic position, 222. Work, in teachers' houses, 59-60. Y Yajñopavīta, originally an upper garment of skin, then of cloth, 294-5; how supplanted by the thread, 296; could be removed, 298. Yuan Chwang, on Indian charac- ter 244-5. Z Zemandars, and Sanskrit Pâtha- sâlâs, 141.

This page is blank and contains no text.