प्राचीन भारत में शिक्षा (डॉ. ए.एस. अल्तेकर - गुरुकुल एवं बौद्ध विहार शिक्षण इतिहास)

APPENDIX IV FOUR VEDAS, SIX ANGAS, TEN GRANTHAS, FOURTEEN VIDYĀS, EIGHTEEN ŚILPAS AND SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS. In connection with the curriculum in ancient India, the above expressions are frequently used; we therefore propose to explain them briefly in this appendix. Four Vedas :—They are the Rigveda, the Yajur- veda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda. These were regarded as revealed, but there was a time when a deep prejudice was entertained against the Atharvaveda, which was therefore excluded from studies. The remaining three Vedas were therefore called Trayī. Six Angas :—These were the following; 1 Śikshā, the science of pronunciation ; Kalpa, the science of ritualism ; Vyākaraṇa, grammar; Nirukta, philology, Chandas, prosody, and Jyotisha, astronomy. Dasa Granthas :—These were the following: 1 One's own Veda 2. Its Brāhmaṇa 3 and Āraṇyaka 4 Nighaṇṭu and the six Aṅgas enumerated above. A graduate, who had mastered all these, was known as a Daśagranthī Brahmana. Fourteen Vidyas : During the Pauranic period, a person was regarded as a distinguished scholar if he had mastered fourteen Vidyās. These were usually taken to be 1-4 Vedas, 5-10 Shaḍaṅgas, 11 Dharma- śāstra (sacred and secular law) 12 Purāṇas, 13 Mīmānsā (science of exegis) and 14 Tarka (logic) 20

306 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. Eighteen Silpas : There is no authoritative enu- meration of eighteen śilpas. In one place the Milinda- pañha includes the four Vedas, the Purāṇas, philosophy, history, etc. among them (Vol. I, p. 6), but there is no doubt that this is wrong. The basic conception of śilpas is a profession requiring special skill¹ and the Vedic age denoted by this term arts like vocal music, instru- mentalmusic and dancing ² Taxila university claimed to specialise in eighteen śilpas, and archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming and the art of finding treasures figure among the subjects taught there³. These five therefore must have been included in the śilpas. Conveyancing and law, mathematics, accoun- tancy, agriculture, commerce, cattle breeding, and issatha (?) are also mentioned as śilpas in the Buddhist literature.⁴ When we remember the basic idea of śilpa, we can include sculpture and engineering also among the traditional eighteen śilpas. The following there- fore most probably constituted the eighteen śilpas. 1 Vocal music 2 Instrumental music 3 Dancing 4 Painting 5 Mathematics 6 Accountancy 7 Engineer- ing 8 Sculpture 9 Agriculture 10 Cattle-breeding 11 Commerce 12 Medicine 13 Conveyancing and Law 14 Administrative training 15 Archery and military art 16 Magic 17 Snake charming and poison antidotes 18 The Art of finding hidden treasures.

1. एतद्धि दिव्यं शिल्पं न मानुषम् । Kss., XXV, 175
2. त्रिवृद्वै शिल्पं नृत्यं गीतं वादित्रम् । S. Br., XXIX, 5
3. Jātakas Nos. 80 and 537 ; Mahāvagga, VII. 1. 6; Jātaka Nos 185., 256 & 416.
4. M. N., Vol. I p. 85, A. N., Vol. IV pp. 281-2.

IV] SIXTY-FOUR KALĀS 307 Sixty-four Kalas : According to Vātsyāyana I.3.16, the following are the traditional sixty-four Kalās, which a cultured lady was expected to master :— १ गीतम् २ वाद्यम् ३ नृत्यम् ४ आलेख्यम् ५ विशेषकच्छेद्यम् ६ तण्डुलकुसुमवलिविकाराः ७ पुष्पास्तरणम् ८ दशनवसनांगरागः ९ मणि- भूमिकामे १० शयनरचनम् ११ उदकवाथम् १२ उदकाघातः १३ चित्राश्च योगाः १४ माल्यग्रथनविकल्पाः १५ शेखरकापीडयोजनम् १६ नेपथ्यप्रयोगाः १७ कर्णपत्रभंगाः १८ गन्धयुक्तिः १९ भूषणयोजनम् २० ऐन्द्रजालाः २१ कौचुमाराश्च योगाः २२ हस्तलाघवम् २३ विचित्रशाकयूषभक्ष्यविकारक्रिया २४ पानकरसरागासवयोजनम् २५ सूचीवानकर्माणि २६ सूत्रक्रीडा २७ वीणा- डमरुकवाद्यानि २८ प्रहेलिका २९ प्रतिमाला ३० दुर्वाचकयोगाः ३१ पुस्तक- वाचनम् ३२।नाटकाख्यायिकादर्शनम् ३३ काव्यसमस्यापूरणम् ३४ पट्टिका- वेत्रवानविकल्पः ३५ तक्षकर्माणि ३६ तक्षणम् ३७ वास्तुविद्या ३८ रूप्य- रत्नपरीक्षा ३९ धातुवादः ४० मणिरागाकरज्ञानम् ४१ वृक्षायुर्वेद‌योगाः ४२ मेषकुक्कुटलावकयुद्धविधिः ४३ शुकसारिकाप्रलापनम् ४४ उत्साद्ने संवाहने केशमर्दने च कौशलम् ४५ अक्षरमुष्टिकाकथनम् ४६ म्लेच्छित- विकल्पाः ४७ देशभाषाविज्ञानम् ४८ पुष्पशटिका ४९ निमित्तज्ञानम् ५० यन्त्रमातृका ५१ धारणामातृका ५२ सम्पाठ्यम् ५३ मानसीकाव्यक्रियाः ५४ अभिधानकोशः ५५ छन्दोज्ञानम् ५६ क्रियाकल्पः ५७ छलितकयोगाः ५८ वस्त्रगोपनानि ५९ द्यूतविशेषः ६० आकर्षंक्रीडा ६१ बालकीडनकानि ६२-४ वैनयिकीनां वैजयिकीनां व्यायामकीनां च विद्यानां।ज्ञानम्। Owing to want of space it is not possible to explain the meaning of each of the 64 kalās enume- rated above. It would suffice to say that Nos. 23-4 refer to the art of cooking, Nos. 5, 8, 15 and 44 to personal toilette of women requiring skill in the use of ointments for the body, paints for the teeth, etc. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 27 enumerate fine arts like music, dancing and painting. Arts necessary for home and personal decorations are mentioned in Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10 14-19, 48 and 58 and they include garland making, decoration of the floor, the preparation of the bed,

308 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA [App. proper use and care of dress and ornaments etc. Women, who were usually fond of ornaments, were expected to be able to appreciate correctly the value and quality of the different varieties of gold, etc, and Nos. 38-40 refer to the capacity in this connection. Arts useful for the housewife like sewing, patching, elementary carpentry, repairs of household tools and articles are mentioned in Nos: 25,33,35-6,37,41,44, and 49. Literary efficiency and skill of different variety is presupposed by Nos. 28-31,33,45-47 and 51-57. They require women to be skilled in reading, writing, understanding different languages, composing poems, understanding dramas, etc. Nos. 12 and 64 refer to different physical exercises and Nos. 11,20,22,26,42, 43,57,59,60 mention recreations for utilising leisure hours. The latter include magic, sleights of hand, dyūta etc. No. 61 requires every woman to know how to prepare toys for children. It will be thus seen that the 64 arts, which a woman was expected to master, endowed her with a healthy physique, taught her all arts necessary for an economic and an efficient housewife and made her a cultured companion of her husband, who could introduce her to any company of educated men and women. It is obvious that only ladies in higher sections of society could have got proficiency in 64 arts. What was their percentage we do not know.

APPENDIX V Technical terms and dates of authors, works and kings. (A. = Author ; K. = King ; D. = Date ; Q. = Queen) Agrahâra ; a village of learned Brahmana colonists. Alberuni ; Arabic A., c. 1025 A. D. Āpastamba D S. ; c. 400 B. C. Arthasâstra of Kauṭilya, c. 300 B. C. Asramas : four stages of life. Bâṇa ; poet, c. 625 A. D. Brâhmaṇa literature consists of explanations of and commentaries on the Vedas ; c. 1500 B.C. to 1000 B. C. Bhâskarâchârya : A. ; c. 1150 A-D. Bhavabhûti ; poet ; c. 725 A. D. Bhoja ; Paramara king, c. 1025 A.D. Brahmachâri ; student observing celibacy. Brahmacharya, the state of a Brahmachâri. Buddha died in c 487 B. C. Châlukya Dynasty, Later ; 973 to A D. Charaka ; An author on medicine, c 80 A. D. Chandragupta Maurya, c. 300 B.C. Chandragupta Gupta ; c. 400 A.D. Divâkarasena ; sage, c. 610 A. D. Diddâ ; Q. c. 1000 A. D. Dharmasûtras ; c. 600 B. C. to 400 B. C. Fa Hsien ; Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 400 A. D. Gâthâsaptaśatî ; c. 4th century A. D. Gauḍapâda ; philosopher, c. 700 A. D. Gautama D S., c. 400 B. C. Gâyatrî Mantra ; see p. 278. Gṛihyasûtras ; c. 700 B. C. to 500 B. C. Gupta age ; c. 300 to 500 A. D. Gurukula, see p. 132. Harsha ; K. ; 606-647 A. D. Harshacharit, c. 625 A. D. Hînayâna ; a branch of Buddhism, advocating its earlier philosophy. Its literature is mostly in Pali. Homa ; sacrifice to gods. Indo-Iranian age ; c. 2500 B. C. Ikshvâku dynasty of Āndhra country, c. 200 A. D. I-sing ; Chinese traveller in India in c. 675 A. D. Janaka ; K. in Upanishads ; c. 1200 B. C. Jâtaka period ; c. 500 B. C. Jayachandra ; K, c. 1200 B. C. Kadamba dynasty ; c. 300 A. D. to 600 A. D. Kâlidâsa ; 4th century A. D. according to some and 1st century B. C. according to others. Kanishka ; K. c. 100 A. D. Kaṇva Dynasty ; c. 50 B. C. Karman theory holds that we become what we deserve to be by our past actions. Katha republic : c. 300 B. C. Kauṭilya ; author of the Arthaśâstra ; c. 300 B. C. Kumâragupta ; K. ; c. 425 A. D. Lakshmaṇasena : K. of Bengal ; c. 1200 A. D. Mahâyâna : a later school of Buddhism, which deified the

310 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Buddha and wrote its works in Sanskrit. Mahâbhârata; book; c. 300 B. C. Mahâbhârata war; c. 1400 B. C. Mâlatîmâdhava drâma; c. 725 A.D. Mâlava republic; c. 300 B. C. to 200 A. D. Maṇḍanamiśra; A. c. 800 A D. Mantra; sacred verse or formula. Manusmṛiti; c. 300 B. C. Mauryan age; 325 to 190 B. C. Milindapañha a book: c. 1st century B. C. or A. D. Mîmânsâ school of philosophy deals with Vedic exegis and sacrifices. Muñja; K. c. 980 A. D. Nâgârjuna; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 150 A. D. Naishṭhika Brahmachâri observed celibacy to the end of his life. Nirukta; a work on Vedic exegis; c. 700 B. C. Nyâya philosophy mainly deals with the problems of logic. Pallava dynasty; c. 300 to 750 A. D. Pâṇini; famous grammarian; c. 6th century B. C. Pâthaśâla; Sanskrit school. Patwari; village accountant. Punarjanma; rebirth Purâṇas were given their present form in c. 350 A. D., though there are some later additions too. Râmâyaṇa; c. 200 B C. Râjaśekhara; poet; c. 900 A. D. Śâlivâhana dynasty; also known as Sâtavâhana dynasty c. 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. Samâvartana ceremony: at the end of the education course. Saṁgha; Buddhist order of monks. Sâṁkhya philosophy is atheistic and advocates that matter and souls are the two entities. Sandhyâ; morning and evening Vedic prayer. Śaṅkarâchârya, the great Advaitic philosopher; c. 800 A. D. Saṁskâra; ritual. Śibi republic in c. 300 B. C. Śindhurâja; K. c. 1000 A. D. Smṛitis; metrical books on sacred law; c. 300 B. C. to 800 A. D. Snâna; see Samâvartana. Śrâddha; oblations offered to a dead ancestor on the date of his death. Sugandhâ; Q. of Kashmir, c. 900 A. D. Śuṅga dynasty; c. 190 to 80 B.C. Suśruta; a work on medicine. Tol; a Sanskrit school on traditional lines. Upâkarma; see App. I C. Upanayana ceremony for initiating a student into Vedic studies. Upanishadic period; c. 1200 to 800 B. C. Uttararâmacharit drama; c. 725 A. D. Utsarjana; see App. I. C. Vaiśeshika philosophy mainly deals with atomism and logic. Vasubandhu; Mahâyâna philosopher, c. 300 A. D. Vedâṅgas; see App. IV. Vedānta philosophy; mainly based on Upanishads and amplified by Śaṅkara, Râmânuja and others. Vikramâditya VI, Châlukya emperor, c. 1100 A. D. Vrata; a religious vow. Yama Smṛiti; c. 7th century A.D. Yoga philosophy concentrates on meditation and Prâṇâyâma. Yuan Chwang: Chinese pilgrim in India in c. 640 A. D.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 311 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY. RELIGIOUS SOURCES. Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Upanishads, Dharmasūtras, Gṛihyasūtras, Smṛitis, Buddhist Tripiṭakas and Jātakas. Vīramitrodaya of Mitramiśra; Jīvananda's edition; Smṛitichandrikā of Devaṇabhaṭṭa; Mysore University edition. LITERARY SOURCES. Sanskrit dramas and poems referred to in the text and notes. TECHNICAL WORKS. Charaka and Suśruta Saṁhitās. Aryabhaṭīya of Aryabhaṭa. Bṛihatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Dhanurvedasaṁhitā of Vasiṣhṭha, edited by Hardayalu Swami, Meerut, 1899. ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOURCES. Ancient Indian inscriptions as published in various archæological reports and journals like Epigraphia Indica, Indian Antiquary, etc. South Indian Epigraphy Reports. FOREIGN SOURCES. M'Crindle, Ancient India as described by Magas- thenes and Arrian, Calcutta, 1926. M'Crindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great. Westminister, 1896. Legge, Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, by Fa- Hsien, Oxford, 1886. Watters, On Yuan Chwang's Travells in India, Vols. I and II, London, 1904-5.

312 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman Hwui Li, London, 1911 (New Edition). Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Religion by Itsing. Oxford 1896. Sachau, Alberuni's India, Vols. I and II, London 1888. Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, Hindi translation, Hindustani Academy, Allahabad. Cordier, Yule's Travells of Marco Polo, London, 1926. Bernier, Travells in the Mogul Empire, Oxford, 1914. MODERN WORKS. (1) GENERAL. Macdonel and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, London, 1912. Bloomfield, Rig-Veda Repitions. Harvard Oriental Series, 1916. V. A. Smith, Asoka, 3rd edition. Oxford, 1909. Vidyabhushana, A History of Indian Logic, Calcutta, 1921. Altekar, The Rāshtrakūṭas and their Times. Poona, 1934. Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, 1938. (2) BOOKS ON EDUCATION. Keay, Ancient and Later Indian Education, Oxford. Das, The Educational System of the Ancient Hindus, Calcutta, 1930, Bokil, A History of Education in India, Vol, I, Bombay, 1925. Venkatesvaram, Indian Culture through the Ages,

MODERN WORKS 313 Vol. I. Education and the Propagation of Culture, Mysore University, 1928. Bose, Indian Teachers of the Buddhist Universities, Madras, 1925. S. C. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow. Calcutta, 1893. Report of the Education Commission. 1882, along with the reports of the Provincial Committees. Munroe, A Text-book of the History of Education. Graves, A History of Education. Oshea—Social Development and Education. Nunn—Education, its Data and first Principles. Adam's Reports—Report on Vernacular Education in Bengal, 1835-8. J. M. Sen, History of Elementary Education in India, 1933. Book Company, Calcutta, H. Staunton : The Great Schools of England, London, 1877. H. A. Stark :—Vernacular Education in Bengal from 1813-1912, Calcutta 1916. R. A. Quick :—Essays on Educational Reformers. 1929. Henderson :—Text-book in the Principles of Education. Judd :—Introduction to the Scientific Study of Education. Thorndik :—Educational Psychology. Davidson :—Education of the Greek People. Driver :—Greek Education.

INDEX Admission procedure 181. Admission test 81-2, 118. Agrahāra viilages as centres of education. 139-42. 'Aims of education ; 8-20 ; how far achieved, 242-49. Aksharasvikaraṇa, a Sanskâra 265-68. Alberuni, on Brahmagupta's dishonesty, 252 ; on Hindu scholarship, 256-7, 262 ; on vernacular education, 260. Al-Idrisi, on Indian character, 245. Alms, for students, compulsory for householders. 93 Annaprāśana, a Sanskâra, 266. Apprentice system, 198-200 ; in Europe, 200, n. 2. Arabs, borrow Hindu medicine system, 188 ; on Hindu character, 245. Arts and crafts, training in, 198-202, attitude towards, 127-8, 258. Āryabhaṭa on eclipses, 252-3. Āśramas as education centres, 32-3 Association, 29-30. Ayurvedic Upanayana 289-91. Astronomy and astrology, 152, 252-3 B Begging, see under Bhikshā-charaṇa. Benares, as education centre, 110-114. Bhikshā, for students, compulsory for householders, 93. Bhikshācharaṇa, how far real in daily life, 64-66 ; why prescribed, 66 ; when a disgrace, 65. Boarding arrangements, 76 Brahmanchāri, his paraphernalia, 275-6. See under Student for further information. Brahmacharya, its duration, 89 ; rules of, 66-8. Brahmagupta, his intellectual dishonesty, 252-3. Brahmanas, and Veda teaching, 40 ; as teachers of non-vedic subjects, 41 ; as teachers, consequences, 249-50. Buddhism and education, 225- 33. Buddhist Universities, Organisation of, 73-4. Buildings of schools and colleges, 75-6. C Capitals, as education centres, 103. Caste system, its influence on education, 40-6; and Buddhism, 46-7. and Upanayana time, 272-3 ; and Sâvitrī Mantra, 278-9 ; and professions, 40-1. Character, formation of, 10-11, 66-7 ; Indian, estimate of, 244-5. Chaula and primary education, 267. Chhurikābandha, 292-3. Civic duties, and education, 248-9. Classes, their strength, 82-3. Co-education, 211. College session, its duration, 85-6. Colleges as organised institutions, non-existent in early times, 70-2 and at Taxila, 106 and Benares, 112 ; but existing at Nâlandâ, 114-6 ; Vikramasîlâ, 126-9 ; Ennāyirum, 132-3 ; Tirumukkudul, 133 ; Tiruvorriyur, 134 ; Salotgi, 130-2. Commercial education, 195-7. Corporal punishment, 27-28. Courses, their duration, 89-92 ; their organisation, 88-89-96. Cramming, 161. Creative vein disappears, 254-5.

INDEX 315

[Left Column] Culture, preservation of, as an aim of education, 17-19; 247-8. Curriculum, literary in early Vedic period, 143-5; in late Vedic period 145-6; during 1000 B. C to c. I A. D., 147-9; during 1-1200 A. D., 149-57; in Buddhist institutions, 155-7, 230-1. D Daṇḍa of the Brahmachārī, 280 Debates, 163. Debts, three 18-92. Degrees, 168-9. Dhanurvedic Upanayana, 291. Dharmaśāstra age, education in, 238-40. Discipline, rules of, 66-9. Doctors, status of, 184-189. E Eclipse, 252-3. Education, conception of, 3-8; Aims of, 8-20; Aims of, else- where, 20-1; and how far achie- ved 243-49: when to commence, 26, 272-3; to whom to be given and to whom not, 53-4; how far free, 78-81; in post-college life, 26-7; through private individuals for a long time, 71; system, not other-worldly, 249; characterised by depth, but not equally by breadth, 261; religious bias in, in India and Europe, 249; effect of religion's influence in India, 249-253; and in Europe 254; system becomes degenerated, 262-3; general esti- mate, 263-4; centres, varieties of, 103; primary, female and useful see under Primary edu- cation, Female education and Useful education respectively. Educational finance, 92-102: Educational institutes, rise of 72 Ennayiram temple college, 132-3. Examinations, 167-9.

[Right Column] F Family, and education, 33-6. Fees, 78-81; in ancient Greece 78n. 2 Female education and family, 35; two classes of girl students, 207; Coeducation, 211; Upa- nayana and Vedic studies of girls, 204-6, 212-5; attainments of lady scholars, 207-8, and Buddhism 209, 220, 231; extent of, 212; in cultured families, 217; in ordinary families, 219; in ruling families 220-2; and economic independence, 222-3; in Muslim period, 223-4; and Jainism, 244. Fine arts, training in, 200-1; and women, 217. Foreign scholarship, attitude to- wards, 257; Foreign travel, 257 Forests, as centres of education, 32-3; G Gāyatrī Mantra, 278-9. Girdle, its significance, 275. Government, recruits scholars for its posts, 98; patronises distin- guished scholars and colleges, 97: gives land grants 97; cash grants, 98, taxation exem- ptions and other concessions to scholars, 98-99; does not control education, 99-100; in the west, and education, 100-101. Grammar study, 152-3. Greek education at Taxila, 105-6. Greeks on Hindu character, 244. Gṛihaṇishkramaṇa, a Saṅskāra, 266. Guilds, in India and useful educa- tion, 196-7. Guru, see under teacher. Gurudakshiṇā, 78-80; Gurukula system, 30-2.

316 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA H Habit, importance of, 28. Harun Khalifa, invites Hindu doctors, 188. Hereditary professions, their effect on education, 197. Heritage, ancient, its preservation, an aim of education, 17-18. 247 Holidays, 86-88. Home education, 33-5. Home work, 63. Hospitals, 186-7; combined with colleges, 133-135. Hours of school, 33-5. I Ibn Batuta, on Hindu character, 245. Income of teachers, 56-7. Individual attention, 164. Industrial training, attitude to- wards, 197-8; efficiency of, 202; degenerates in medieval times, 203. Interdining, 40. Intellect, when creative, 254; when assimilative, 255; J Jesuitical educatiou, 256. Judgment, power of, in students, 15. K Kālās, 64, App. IV. Kalas college, 189. Karman theory, 37. Kharag-bandhāi, 293. Kindergarden stage, 171. Kings, their duty to patronise learning, 96; specific instances of, as patrons of learning, 97; assumed no patronising atti- tude, 100; see also under Government. Kshatriyas, their Upanayana and Vedic studies, 43. L Lady teachers, 210. Laymen, education of, 155. Learning, respect for, 95-6. Libraries, 119, 125, 158. Life-long students, 91-2. Limitation, law of, and students, 99. Literacy, extent of, 174, 179, 181; in ancient Athens and Sparta and medieval Europe. 259. Logic, courses in, 154. Liither, on state's duty to help education, 101; first encourages but later discourage reason, 254. M Malkapuram temple college, 135-6. Marco Polo, on Indian character. 245 Marriage time, 215-6; and student life, 25. Masses, education sf, 259. Medhājanana, a ritual, 281. Medical education, 184-90; and women, 219. Megasthenes, on Indian character, 244. Mekhalā, 275. Method of teaching, see under Teaching. Middle Ages, a period of intel- lectual repression, 255-6. Military education, 190-5. Monastic colleges, administration of, 73-4, 121. Monasteries, as centres of educa- tion, 73-4. 114-29; in Europe and education, 73. Monitorial system, 165-6. Monks, courses for, 156. Muslim rule, its effect on Hindu education, 183, 262-8. N Naishthika Brahmachāri, 91-2. Nālandā University, 114,123; its rise and progress, 114-5; its

INDEX 317

[Left Column]

lay-out 115;, boarding arrange- ments, 116; number of students, 117, its curriculum, 120; its standard of admission, 118; its libraries, 119; its fame in Java and Tibet, 122; how destroyed, 123. Night classes, 84-5. Nature and Nurture, their influence on education, 86-9. Non-Brāhmaṇas, as Vedic teachers 40. O Originality disappears, 255. P Pauranic age, education in, 240-2. Personality, development of, as aim of education, 12-18, 246-7. Peshwa, his help for education, 98. Philosophy, study of, 154. Physical exercises, 63. Physical punishment, 27-8. Pitṛiṛiṇa theory, and education, 18. Poetesses, 217-8. Poetry course, the study in, 153. Prakrit, during 200 B.C.—300 A.D. 151-2; development of, arrested, 152; in primary education, 180; effect of the neglect of, 259-260. Pre-school education, 38-4. Priests as teachers, in India, 40; in Europe, 78. Primary education, upto 1000 B.C. 171-2; during 1000-200 B. C., 172-5; during 200 B. C.—800 A. D. 175-80; during 800 A. D. —1200 A. D., 180-83; why not once important, 170; and Buddhism, 231. Principles of education, 22-35. Private teachers, 71; and fees, 79. Promotions, 164-167. Punishment, physical, limitation on, 27-8. Punjab, condition of education in, at c. 1850 A. D., 95-6.

[Right Column]

Purāṇas, study of, 153-4. reverence for, 252. Princes, education of, 193-4. Princesses, education of, 220-2. R Raghu, a king, his concern for education, 80 n. 2. Rāhu-Ketu theory of eclipses, 252-3. Rationalism, properly cultivated in early times, 250; discouraged in later days, 251; its effect on research, 252; discouraged in Europe also in medieval times, 254. Religion, its influence on education, 9; gives rise to educational rituals like Vidyārambha, 265; Upanayana, 268; Upākarma, 283; does not make education other-worldly, 249; helps edu- cation, 94-5, 269; discourages reason, 250-4; discourages secular studies, 249-50; Reservation of seats for subjects in colleges, 132-34. Rituals, educational, App. I Routine, importance of, 29. S Sacred Thread, App. II. Salaries of teachers, 183; 57-58. Salotgi temple college, 130-2. Samāvartana, a privilege of the few, but later extended to all 287-8; ceremony described, 288; of Dhanurveda students, 292-3. Sanskrit, ascendancy of, 151; its effect on Prakrits, 151-2 and on the spread of education 259-60; courses in, 152-3. Sarvajñapura Agrahāra college 189. Sattras for the poor students, 94. Sāvitrī-Mantra, 278-9. School-hours, 38. Self-confidence and students, 13-4

318 EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

Self-respect encouraged in students, 13. Self-restraint and student life, 14. Shadaṅgas, 305. Sippas or branches of useful edu- cation, 306. Ship-building, 202. Smṛiti age, education in, 149-57. Smṛitis, study of, 153; reverence for, 252, Snāna, see under Samāvartana, Social efficiency, as aim of edu- cation, 15-16. Society, its help for education, 93-5; makes provision for poor students; 312-3. Sources, 2-3. Śrāvaṇi, why so called, see under Upākarma. Staff of the students, 280. State, see under Government. Strabo on Indian character, 244. Spinning, and women, 222-3. Students, their duties towards teachers, 58-60; how far working in their teachers' houses, 59-60; their relation' with their teachers in after- life, 62; their marriages with teacher's daughters, 61-2; daily routine of their life, 62-4; their duty to beg, how far discharged, 64-66; general rules for their life, 66-8; how far staying with their teachers, 30-1; boarding arrangements for, 76; and marriage, 25, 215-6; free boardings for, 116, 182, 185. Shudras, and Vedic studies, 44-5. Surgery, training in, 185-6. Svetaketu on post-collegiate edu- cation, 284.

T

Taxila, as centre of education, 104-10; its early history, 104; Greek influence over, 105-6; not a University of the modern type, 106; its all-India fame, 107-8; boarding arrangements, 108; subjects taught at, 109; how destroyed, 109-10. Taxation, exemption from, 99. Teacher, his importance, 48; re- garded as a spiritual father, 49; why venerated, 50, his training, 51-2; qualifications of, 52; usually a householder, 33; his income, 56-8; 133-4; his caste, 41-2; his relations with stu dents, 60-1; must not delay- education, 58; must not sti pulate for fees, 78; must take filial care of students, 55; must not with-hold anything from students, 54; domestic work in his house, 59; his high code of honour, 58; his power of inflicting physical punishment, 27-8; daughters of, marrying students, 61-2, Women as, 210. Teaching, method of, in Vedic period, 144-146; 148; in Vedic classes, 158-9 in primary schools, 176; the place of cramming in, 161; and of exposition, 162-3, individual attention in, 164; senior stu- dents' help in, 165. Temple Colleges, 74, 130-8; Text books, competition for, 156-7. Tibet and Nâlandâ scholars, 122, and Vikramasîlâ scholars, 126. Tīrthas as centres of education, 104. Tirumukkudal temple college, 133. Tiruvorriyur temple college, 134. Tols, 141, Tonsure, 267. Training colleges for teachers, 51. Treasure-trove laws, 99.

U

Ugrabhūti, his efforts to get his book prescribed, 156.

INDEX 319 Universities, 72-4. 117. Upādhyāyā, 210. Upākarma, at the beginning of the college term, 282-3; why ex- tended to all, 284-5; description of, 285-6; and the sacred thread, 286. Upanayana, its antiquity, 270; meaning of. 268-9; when per- formed, 272; performed by married men, 268-9; a simple ritual, 270; when and why made compulsory 269; as the second birth, 49 m; why prescribed for the dumb and deaf, 269; why prescribed as a Prāyaśchitta, 269 of Asvattha tree, 270; critical survey of, 274-8; significance of; the presentation to deities in, 276, presentation to the teacher in, 277; teaching of the Sāvitrī mantra in, 278; significance of the whole ritual, 281-2; of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, 43; of women, 206, 213; for Āyurveda students, 289; for Dhanurveda students, 291. Upanishad age, education in, 147-9, 236 8. Utsarjana ceremony, at the end of the session, 286-7. V Vacation, 85-6. Vaishyas, their Upanayana and Vedic studies, 43. Valabhi as a centre of education, 123-5. Varâhamibira on eclipses; 252-3: on Greeks' achievements in astro- nomy, 256. Vedic study, how far a mere cramming. 144-8; its nature in different periods, 144-147, 149; falling into background, 149; during 1-1200 A. D. 149-50; and Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, 43-44. Vernaculars, education in, 259-60; in Europe, 260, Veterinary science, 190. Vidyās, 14, App. IV. Vidyārambha Sanskāra, 265-8. Vikramasīlā Monastic college, 125-9 W Wastage in Education, 264. Women, status of, 212-14; Upana- yana of, 206; 213; as teachers, 210; as poetesses 217-18; as Vedic seers, 205; as governors, 221; and medical studies, 219; scholars mentioned in Brahmayajña, 208; literacy among 212, 223-4; age at the marriage of, 215; and military training, 221, their economic position, 222. Work, in teachers' houses, 59-60. Y Yajñopavīta, originally an upper garment of skin, then of cloth, 294-5; how supplanted by the thread, 296; could be removed, 298. Yuan Chwang, on Indian charac- ter 244-5. Z Zemandars, and Sanskrit Pâtha- sâlâs, 141.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND TRANSLITERATION ABBREVIATIONS A. D. S. Āpastamba Dharma Sūtra A. G. S. Āpastamba Gṛiha Sūtra A. N. Aṅguttara Nikāya Ait. Ar. Aitareya Āraṇyaka Alberuni Sachau, Alberuni's India Aś. Gr. S. Āśvalāyana Gṛihya Sūtra A. S. R. Archæological Survey of India, Annual Reports, New Series A. S. W. I. Archæological Survey of Western India, Reports of. A. V. Atharvaveda B. D. S. Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtra Bau. Gr. S. Baudhāyana Gṛihya Sūtra Beal, Life. Life of Hiuen Tsiang Bh. Gr. S. Bhāradvāja Gṛihya Sūtra Bṛ. Up. Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad Ch. Up. Chhāndogya Upanishad Dr. Gr. S. Drāhyāyaṇa Gṛihya Sūtra E. C. Epigraphia Carnatica E. I. Epigraphia Indica Elliot, History Elliot's History of India, as told by its historians, Vols. I-2, London, 1870. Go. Br. Gopatha Brāhmaṇa Go. Gr. S. Gobhila Gṛihya Sūtra Hi. Gr. S. Hiraṇyakeśi Gṛihya Sūtra I. A. Indian Antiquity I. M. P. Inscriptions from Madras Presidency. I.-tsing Record of the Western World by I-tsing, edited by Takakusu

viii J. A. S. B. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal J.B.B.R.A.S. Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. J. B. O. R. S Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Re- search Society Jai. Gr. S. Jaimini Gṛihya Sūtra Jai. Up. Br. Jaimini Upanishad Brāhmaṇa K. M. Kāvyamīmānsā Kh. Gr. S. Khādira Gṛihya Sūtra Kū. P. Kūrma Purāṇa K. S. Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā Kss. Kathāsaritsāgara K. UP. Kaṭhopanishad Ma. Gr. S. Mānava Gṛihya Sūtra M. A. S. I. Memoirs of the Archæological Survey of India Mbh. Mahābhārata Mil. Pan. Milinda Pañha (S. B. E. edition) M. N. Majjhima Nikāya M. S. Maitrāyaṇīya Saṁhitā Mu. Up. Muṇḍakopanishad M. V. Mahāvagga N. S. Nītiśataka P. Gr. S. Pāraskara Gṛihya Sūtra Par. Ma. Mādhava's commentary on Parāśara Smṛiti P. M. Pūrva Mīmānsā Pr. Up. Praśnopanishad R. V. Ṛig-veda Sachau Alberuni's India, edited by Sachau Śānti P: Śānti Parvan of the Mahābhārata Sāraṅga. P. Sāraṅgadhara Padhati Ś. Br. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa S. B. E. Sacred Books of the East Series

ix SCS. Smṛitichandrikā, Sanskāra Kāṇḍa S. I. E. R. Annual Reports of South Indian Epigraphy. Tai. Ar. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka Tai. Br. Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa T. S. Taittirīya Saṁhitā Tai Up. Taittirīya Upanishad V. D. S. Vasishṭha Dharma Sūtra Va. Gr. S. Varāha Gṛihya Sūtra Vaj. Sam. Vājasaneya Saṁhitā Vi. Dh. S. Vishṇu Dharma Sūtra or Vishṇu Smṛiti VMS. Vīramitrodaya, Saṁskāra-prakāśa Watters, Watters, on Yuan Chwang's Travels Yaj. Yājñavalkya-Smṛiti S. R. S. Subhāshita-Ratna-Sandoha S. R. B. Subhāshita-Ratna-Bhāṇḍāra TRANSLITERATION Current words like Brahmana, Vaishya or Shudra and modern names like Sivaji and Paithan are written usually without diacritical marks. Sanskrit, Prākrit and Pāli words are transliterated according to the following scheme. आ ā ई ī ऊ ū ऋ ṛi विसर्ग ḥ ङ् ṅ च ch छ chh ञ ñ ट ṭ ठ ṭh ड ḍ ढ ḍh ण ṇ श ś ष sh स s ह h ळ ḷ क्ष kṣh ज्ञ jñ. Sometimes the long vowel is denoted also by the mark ^ above it ; e. g. आ by â.

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